Political Science

Climate change has in the recent past become a major topic of discussion in the world today. This is mostly because of its effects which are practically evident today. Scenarios of flooding, extreme drought conditions, food insecurity, increased temperatures, and environmental refugees have become the main features in the media and have therefore sparked the need to find viable solutions to the effects of climate change. The road to finding such working solutions is however not easy. This report therefore looks in detail at the loopholes which are backed by factual findings and recommendations that can be drawn while mainly considering the ethical and political perspectives of climate change.

Ethics and Climate Change
Ethics is a word that comes from a Greek word ethos which means pertaining to character. It can also be used interchangeably with morality which is the content that studies values and norms of a people. Ethics and Political Theory essentially aims to answer the following questions. What makes life significant What entails a just society, and its rules worth respecting What do we have to give back to members of other societies, generations, and species Can any of the answers to these queries really be true If so, how can we know which answers to accept as true, and what reasons, if any, do we have to act on them
All humans are equal. From an ethical point of view, humans are recognized as equal to one another. This is mainly because of the intrinsic value they posses which mean that they are of value by virtue of their existence. From this therefore we draw the significance that humans are to treat each other fairly and respectfully as they make decisions that entail their existence on planet earth. Ethics further recognizes that every human being is part and parcel of the community of life and that there is a link that connects all human societies both present and future. Every human being has the same fundamental and equal right to life, liberty, security among others.
Global commons are resources that are available in abundance on a global scale such as the atmosphere and oceans. Such resources transcend political, geographical and cultural boundaries. Their use should therefore not be restricted as they allow for open access. Ownership of these resources is not restricted as they are abundant in nature thus all humans have the right to access them or products obtained from them. In accessing, managing and conserving these resources, ethics recognizes the principle of distributive justice whereby everyone should aim towards sharing fairly in their benefits and costs.
Ethics is stipulated as the philosophical study of rules, laws, standards by which we determine right or wrong. Ethics plays a fundamental role in justifying why some actions are regarded as right or wrong. In its application in the climate change scenario for example, actions that contribute to increased emissions and quantities of green house gases in the atmosphere like burning large amounts of fossil fuels would essentially be termed as wrongs while those that result either in the reversing of these quantities such as carrying out afforestation to increase carbon sequestration may be regarded as right. However, sometimes determining what is right or wrong can prove to be difficult in situations where gains and losses are experienced. This then instigates the question of when does an action change from right to wrong
Arthur (2000) expresses that morality is the content that studies values. These values are drawn externally from religion, social institutions such as customs and taboos. Humans are known to be rational beings as they are endowed with the ability to reason out hence the concept of self- reasoning from the conscience perspective. They can therefore draw some moral values semi autonomously, that is, without relying on others.
    In human society, morality helps to regulate the conduct of individuals in social life, it is also useful in conflict resolution and determining relationships in the sense that through relationships, an individual is able to create boundaries that define their rightful place in society. Morality takes three dimensions, i.e., self relationship, human to human relationship and human to nature relationships. Humans cannot exist in isolation but mutually depend on each other and the physical environment to attain satiety. These interactions are in form of actions that may either strengthen or loosen the bond of relationships. From the attribute of self reasoning, humans are held accountable for their actions hence integrating responsibility with morality.
Anthropogenic factors are human activities that contribute directly or indirectly to changes in the climatic conditions. These include industrialization which is the growth of industries. This has resulted in the emission of green house gases such as carbon monoxide due to the burning of fossil fuels, poor disposal of industrial wastes and high levels of deforestation due to commercial logging. The resultant effects are global warming emanating from the green house effect further causing global climate change urbanization which has resulted in air pollution from high congestion levels in the cities, deforestation due to development of urban sprawls as a result of growing cities mechanized agriculture where large tracts of land are cultivated which utilize inorganic fertilizers that contribute to global warming indirectly the introduction of invasive species as a mechanism to counter food insecurity and the encroachment of deserts into fertile land for example, Prosopis juliflora. These interfere with the ecological ecosystems as they result in the extinction of indigenous species hence global warming due to reduce levels of carbon sequestration.
These intervention measures have instead accelerated climate change effects resulting in crisis displacement hence creating environmental refugees and further exposing fragile ecosystems to intense degradation.
As discussed earlier, humans are accountable for their actions which impact negatively to their adjacent physical environment from an ethical stand therefore they should be penalized for these actions. For situations such as invasive species, the prime actors are the researchers and governments that allow these genetically modified organisms to be introduced in their countries.
For sustainable development (development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs) to be achieved, approaches like the polluter pay principle need to be institutionalized presently to ensure that environmental conservation is promoted so that resources are available for use by future generations(Langhelle 1999). The polluter pay principle in lay mans language refers to compensation or restoration of destroyed environments by environmental perpetrators. From the ethical perspective, humans are part of a community of life and that there is a link that connects human societies both present and future to the rest of nature. Thus, as we aim to attain satiety through our actions, we are to also consider future generations.

Politics and Climate Change
The political theory expresses the views, opinions, and beliefs of a people. In this document however the focus is on environment, more so climate change which is a contentious issue in the world today. The political theory of climate change encompasses four tasks First, the need to comprehend social and political obstacles to a just and proficient global response to climate changes. Secondly, to establish and maintain a fair allocation of atmospheric benefits and burdens. Third, to synchronize the dictates of atmospheric justice with justice that is more broadly construed. Fourth, to clarify the way in which the aberrant characteristics of climate change should prompt a re-examination of the way in which socio-political institutions and concepts are conceived
.From the political perspective, Environmental rights contribute to a large extent to the direction of decisions made on behalf of the environment. As envisioned by Hangrove (1997), these rights are merged with human rights as humans interact with the physical environment for goods and services. Their health, livelihoods and well being depends on the quality of and access to the adjacent environment. These rights therefore tend to address issues affecting indigenous people who directly depend on the environment. Michael (2007) discusses that these rights recognize the need to enhance and maintain ecologically sound environments and promote sustainable development. They further propose basic practical actions that would reverse the situation of the environment. Actions such as planting trees are applicable as they consider that nature is equally as important to human beings and therefore humans should ensure that it is protected.
    Gas emission rights are also a component of the political theory on climate change. Currently, the environment cannot be fully conserved without exploitation taking place. Human beings still rely on development results for their survival. At this evolution stage, both development and conserve must come into play. Environmental sacrifices have to take place and humans on their side have to cut down on their greed. In order to restore the climatic conditions by reducing green house gas emissions, the Kyoto protocol was recommended where clean development mechanisms that allow carbon trading, industrial symbiosis and stipulate emission standards as well as green energy explorations and joint implementation mechanisms where countries partner in projects that are eco-friendly were focused.
    The Declaration on the Right to Development recognizes that human beings are central to the development process thus development policies should ensure that humans are main participants and beneficiaries of development. It also recognizes that favorable conditions for development are sole responsibilities of states. In addition, it confirms that the right to development is an inalienable human right thus equality of opportunity for development is a right both of nations and of citizens who are constituents of nations. To this end therefore, article three of the declaration states that states are primarily responsible for the creation of favorable conditions nationally and internally for the realization of the right to development. Article two also stipulates that countries have the right and duty to formulate suitable development policies that aim at the steady improvement of the well being of populations on basis of their active participation in development and in fair distribution of benefits that result.
The Cartagena Declaration recognizes that environmental problems stem from the actions of the North that are mostly driven by greed. This greed it explains has resulted in pollution of waterways, deforestation for purposes of commercial logging, irreversible changes in the general climatic conditions that have caused flooding, drought conditions, further resulting in extreme poverty and driving communities in the South to vulnerable conditions. Michael (2007) details that the drivers to climate collapse include fossil fuel technology, global market expansion and accumulation of wealth, these actions and their effects trickle down from the North.
The recent Conference of Parties Summit held in Copenhagen was meant to seal a deal among nations so that they are accountable for their actions. Developed countries were supposed to support developing nations of the world in their efforts to reverse climate change effects. This was to be in form of grants. The results were however shocking as industrialized nations were unable to live up to their promises.
 Summary of Findings
    From the above discussions, humans deserve equality in their access to resources, sharing of benefits and active involvement in the decision making however this is not the case as discovered in the Copenhagen Summit where decisions made by the North are considered more than the opinions of the South.
    Green House Gas emissions have continued to increase despite previous efforts to address this through such as mechanisms employed by the Kyoto Protocol. This is partly attributed to lack of cohesion in deliberating for flexible legally binding agreements that would spearhead actions to reverse climatic changes.
    The political aspect on climate change has overridden the need for ethical application in brainstorming the solutions to climate as each country fights for an accord that would be of great benefit to it rather than considering inevitable sacrifices it would have to make for the sake of other countries.
Global commons such as the atmosphere are worst hit by the effects of development as they are vastly exploited as producers of valuable resources or assimilators of wastes. The industrialized world has benefited more from these resources as they possess advanced technology for the exploitation process. This is however at the cost of developing nations who pay the prices for pollution despite being on the receiving end of the adverse effects.
Environmental Justice is the fair handling and significant involvement of all people in spite of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, execution, and enforcement of environmental laws, rules, and policies (Markku 1996). As for the case of the Copenhagen summit, inequality between the North and South affected the results of the decision making process paving way for loopholes as countries failed to commit themselves on a timescale which would form the ceiling in determining the efforts taken to reverse climate change issues. It is important to note that based on environmental ethics, the present generation is responsible to future generations and that countries responsible for high emissions in the past have a greater responsibility as environmental justice seeks to remedy inequitable distribution of environmental burdens.
Recommendations
In order to ensure that subsequent summits achieve the desired goals as it relates to climate change
 Active participation should be encouraged from all stakeholders, that is, respective countries and the Non- Governmental community, in the decision making platform.
 Opinions from the South should be considered to a large extent since they are the main receptors of the effects of climate change.
Appropriate solutions to reversing the effects of climate change should be encouraged as this would take into account the diversity of human society and the problems they face.
Environmental ethics should be embedded in discussions of upcoming summits to pave way for cohesion between the North and South which is fundamental in the achievement of a clean environment for all.
To support the claim that countries responsible for high emissions in the past owe a greater responsibility, Hadjilambrinos (1999) expounds on the concept of culpability which calls for those responsible for the Green House Gases already accumulated in the atmosphere to be penalized by receiving less allocations or by having to recompense others for their past activities. An alternative to this rule reflects the polluter pays principle which would require emitters to pay a fee for each unit of Green House Gas emissions. The price would be determined in such away that it would induce predestined overall Green House Gas emission reductions.
According to Langhelle (1999), social justice (inter and intra generations), humanistic cohesion, concern for the worlds poor, and respect for the ecological restrictions to global development, comprise other aspects of sustainable development aspects which are undeniably relevant for the growing gap between North and South.