Political Science

I. Introduction
a. Darfur crisis has attracted attention of international community as the Sudanese government has supported Arab militia that has unleashed a reign of terror on innocent African tribes of south Sudan.
b. Economic factors are mainly responsible for emergence of this crisis.
c. China has played its role in this region due to its dependence on oil imports, which are necessary to maintain its economic growth.

II. Body
a. The major developed countries such as the US and Great Britain have considered Darfur problem as humanitarian crisis. These countries have imposed sanctions on Sudan for fuelling war in this troubled region.
b. China, which has invested heavily in Sudanese oil fields, has exhibited independent attitude towards Darfur. This is because China expects to obtain continuous supply of oil from this African region.
c. China has directly and indirectly opposed UN sanctions by challenging UNSC resolutions concerning Sudan and by supplying arms to Sudan government-sponsored militia. Such Chinese strategy can inspire western nations to react in similar manner.
d. China needs to understand suffering of people, the members of African tribes who are harassed by Arab militia.

III Conclusion
a. International community has criticized the role of China in Sudan as China has continued to give liberal aid to Sudan central government.
b. China has significant stakes in Sudan, in the form of investment in oil fields in the region. China needs huge quantity of oil to maintain its growth rate.
c. China needs to review its attitude towards Sudan.

The Darfur conflict and China
The Darfur conflict has reached complex proportions with the role of China, which has exhibited opportunistic tendencies in its political moves determined by its economic ambitions in the region. China has, deliberately or not deliberately, followed the footsteps of the US and other developed countries that exhibit intention to exploit underdeveloped regions to enhance their revenues from such operations.

Sudan, the region comprising people belonging to different races and speaking various languages, is involved in bitter power struggle between government sponsored Arab militia and African tribes. The conflict, resulting in killings of millions of people from 1970s, has attracted little media attention in the United States, as the media in this country has highlighted the life of celebrities instead of attempting to understand the basis of genocide in the African region. The UN and other international organizations have exhibited superficial understanding of this problem, by calling for peace. The crux of the problem is the conflict for oil, a major exportable resource that is available in Sudan. North and South Sudan fight for the control of this precious resource. This is because traditionally Sudan does not boast of any exportable resources and oil is the only resource, which can fetch handsome profit to the government.  (Morse 2005)

It is stated that the crisis is  an explosion of structural violence rooted in constant struggles for control of national wealth and power between Sudans central government and its peripherals. (Quach 2004, p. 2) The statement can imply that  central government of Sudan has entered into strategic alliances with forces, local, national, and international, which can ensure central governments ability to control national resources. To achieve this goal, the central government can take any action. This political situation is exploited by China, an emerging world power, which needs control of oil, an important resource, necessary to achieve greater industrial progress.

Generally, one can accept that economic causes are responsible for the emergence of war between Arab militia and African farmers in the region. In the year 2001, the country registered GDP of 13.5 billion, which was a fraction of US GDP. This shows that Sudan is one of the most underdeveloped countries of the world, even though it is one of the largest economies of Africa.

 Till recently, farmers produced crops with the assistance of primitive tools. Majority of population lacks skill and resources necessary to enhance their economic power. Due to lack of enhanced agricultural production, the country depends heavily on its oil output, even though it cannot solve its severe economic problems, particularly in the countryside. (Jie 2004) This has given an opportunity to local and international groups interested in improving their prospects in the country. Consequently, China, hungry for international power and recognition, has encouraged Sudanese government by providing them resources in the name of humanitarian aid. No mechanism is in place to see that humanitarian aid reaches the target group.

Evidences are available to suggest that the Chinese National Petroleum Corporation has its holdings in the oil fields of Southern Sudan. China has invested heavily to develop oil fields and exploit this scarce resource. Chinese soldiers are seen defending such regions that involve precious Chinese economic interest. (Masud 2004)  It is also suggested that the countries such as the US and Britain can enter this region in order to compete with China. This is because as early 1996, the US had given funds to various African countries to destroy Sudanese regime so that it can gain control of oil resources of the region. In this respect China needs to monitor movement of western advanced economies, which are also known for their appetite for oil.

 Natural calamities such as drought and famine are other problems affecting the people of Southern Sudan. This region possesses considerable oil resources. Despite this, the people complain that their villages are not developed. Consequently, they decided to continue their struggle against the government, despite attempts by the UN to compel parties to dispute to sign a peace agreement. This shows that solution to Darfur crisis is not visible in the short term.

Oil was discovered in the region in the year 1978. (Morse 2005)   After this discovery, major countries of the world, including the US, Britain, and China have participated in the race to control these resources. The western countries control huge oil resources and there is demand for more alternative sources of this energy. This is due to an increase in demand for oil, particularly from growth-oriented countries such as China and India. In China, for example, oil demand increased by 33 percent in the year 2005. (Morse 2005)   It is suggested that India and China will need more than 11 million barrels a day by the end of 2010.

Prior to 1993, China was the largest oil exporter from Asia. In the post-1993 period, China has introduced notable changes to its economy, which is growing at the rate of 9 percent per year. To maintain this stupendous growth rate, the country will need enormous supply of oil. At present, China is the second largest consumer of oil in the world. When Chinese industries switch from coal to oil, it will enhance demand for oil in this country. Nearly 50 percent of Chinas oil supply is from the Middle East. China is reluctant to depend on a particular region to satisfy its desire to obtain oil. The country is searching for an alternative region.

China finds that Africa can emerge as future bet. Consequently, China has initiated a policy to strengthen its ties with African countries. It finds, mainly due to political crisis, an opportunity to obtain oil in Sudan and other countries of Africa. Sudan is a major African country having close trade relationship with China.

Nearly 60 percent of Sudan oil produce is exported to China. Compared to this success in Sudan, the Chinese policy has failed in Angola and Nigeria. In these countries China followed the strategy of developing oil fields in the pretext of giving loans for building roads, railways, and bridges.

Chinese companies have already invested heavily in this region, through investment in infrastructure, kickbacks, and installments. Chinese greed for oil is likely to result in similar investment projects by Indian oil firms. The Asian countries have participated in the race to acquire this precious resource. One needs to analyze Chinese political statements, with reference to Darfur, in the background of its economic stakes in the region

Wide gap prevails between western and Chinese attitudes toward Darfur crisis. The West considers the African problem as a humanitarian crisis and has imposed sanctions on this African zone. China, on the other hand, accepts that this is a humanitarian crisis, while at the same time refusing to impose sanctions. Consequently, China defends its position by claiming that war in the region emerged due to lack of economic development. Consequently, China has invested heavily in oil exploration, irrigation, healthcare, and education. Nevertheless, the major part of Chinese investment is seen in oil-related projects.

China believes in establishing long term relationship with the African leaders and assisting them in enhancing their economic and political might. This policy can boomerang as the western leaders can claim that China has slowed down the peace process, as it has invested heavily in this region. Chinese leaders do not accept the argument that they possess imperialist designs in Africa. (Qian and Wu 2007)
The West and China do not agree with each other concerning the solution to humanitarian crisis in Africa. Indirectly, China has encouraged militant groups in Darfur and thereby worsened political situations in this region. In the name of non-interference policy, China has attempted to defend its close economic ties with Sudan central government.

The UN has imposed arms embargo on Sudan. China seems to take an independent stand even though it claims to respect UN decision concerning Sudan. Evidences are available to suggest that the Sudan government uses Chinese army lorries, which were exported to the region in the year 2005. The rebel groups use Chinese army lorries captured from the military.

The Chinese governments should note that its arms can fall into the hands of terrorists who can contribute to genocide in the region. The Sudan military and the rebel groups use Chinese-made equipments such as guns, lorries, anti aircraft guns, and Chinese Fantan jets. The Chinese government claims that Fantan jets were delivered before 2003 when there was no UN sanction on export of arms to Sudan. At the same time, media has reported that Chinese have sent personnel to give training to fighter pilots. (Anderson 2008)  This shows that even after imposition of the UN sanction, Chinese government continues to support genocide in Sudan. This is because central government and its militia use Chinese-made jets in order to kill people who lack weapons to defend their villages. Consequently, Sudan government has continued to indulge in massacre of people who are considered as racially inferior. Chinese government has refused to accept this allegation, but one cannot accept such assertions. China seems to establish strong ties with Sudanese government to pursue its selfish economic and political ambitions in the region.

China has used the strategy that was used by western imperialist powers such as the US and Britain in early 20th century. To exploit oil resources, these countries had in the past given liberal aid to countries that indulged in violence. The Middle East, today, faces the problem of Islamic terrorism. (An-Naim 2004)  Similarly, today Africa has become the center of turmoil due to the arms that were supplied by developed countries of the world.

China aims to join other countries that exploited resources available in Asia and Africa, the underdeveloped regions of the world. Consequently, humanitarian values have taken backseat as Chinese government has continued to maintain its normal ties with the parties that indulge in mass massacre in this African region. The developed countries and emerging powers such as China need to accept their responsibility in this major crisis.
  
The western nations are not interested in continuing with their ties with Sudanese leaders who do not seem to show remorse for killing of large numbers of innocent civilians. The international community has pressured China to respond to its call to sever its ties with Sudan.

Broadly speaking, China has accepted the UN position with reference to the Darfur crisis, but China believes that the UNSC needs to show patience before implementing any radical action against Sudan. China has used its power in the UNSC to block resolutions that suggest measures such as use of international force so as to suppress Sudanese authorities.

The Chinese opinion is that the UN needs to take note of the views of the Sudanese government. It is argued that the UN needs to send its peacekeeping force and introduce institutional change only after taking consent of Sudanese government. China has used its authority with a view to postpone crucial political decisions at the UN level. This has prevented the UN from introducing a united action.

The foreign policy of China is designed in such a way as to accommodate its strategy to achieve high growth rate so that the country can compete with other major economies of the world. China follows non interference foreign policy. Critics suggest that China cannot adhere to this policy in the long term. This is because it has invested huge capital in Africa. (Hanson 2008) The capital employed in Africa need to yield profit for China to survive in the present world of globalization. Scholars have criticized Chinas attitude towards human rights violation in Sudan.

Despite atrocities committed by the Sudanese central government, China has continued to invest heavily in the region, in the pretext of developing it. Such investments have allowed China to influence Sudanese leaders and their decisions, as most of them are determined by Chinese views. Chinese National Petroleum Company has entered into bilateral agreement with the Sudan government to develop an offshore oil block. China has decided to write off 80 million Sudanese debt.

The humanitarian aid is not sufficient to replace human and material loss suffered by innocent civilians. Nearly 70 percent oil profits are redeployed by the Sudanese central government to purchase arms. (Harris 2008) In this way, China is able to obtain return from its investment in oil fields of Sudan. China supplies large quantities of weapons to Sudan, which is not able to save its oil revenues. The Asian country has assured its cooperation with Sudan in the future. The policies of China are not beneficial to Sudan and international community.

China, unlike other major world powers, has opposed the UN sanction on Darfur, by supplying arms and weapons and by maintaining its trade relationship with this region ruled by dictators. With a view to obtain continuous supply of large amount of oil, China has invested heavily in Sudanese oil fields. Such investments are necessary if China wants to maintain its economic growth. Economic factors have resulted in political decisions that have affected ability of international community to establish peace in this region of Africa. China needs to review its policy sooner or later so as to avoid negative reactions by western countries as they can also pursue similar policies in Sudan and other African nations.

ORGANIZATION THEORY
Columbia Space Shuttle Crash
Poor organization culture forms one of the major factors that obscures its vision, delimits its objectivity and culminates to massive extended losses.  Such was the ineffectiveness with the NASAs organization culture that resulted to the Columbia Space Shuttle Crash, killing all the crew, deleting the whole objective and earning of poor repute both locally and internationally.  

What aspects of NASAs culture were criticized in the two reports
The crash of the Columbia Space Shuttle was partly attributed to the NASAs organization culture which failed to identify key flaws despite previous citation when the Challenger crashed.  Columbia Accident Investigation Board (2003) indicates that NASAs organization structure was poor in making key decisions regarding space flights.  Notably, decision making on safety was only bestowed to one single individual, the Shuttle Program Manager.  As a result, employing critical analysis of all safety considerations was very hard.  In addition, Columbia Accident Investigation Board (2003) indicates that the structure assimilated a highly rigid culture which failed to identify the importance of continued improvement in the space shuttles re-designing.  Since the Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster, NASA had not effected a new response system to guarantee perfectness and flexibility in the space shuttles.  Before the Challenger took off, Morton Thiokol understood the flaws with its O-Rings which later caused the disaster few moments after taking off (Henry, 2008). Similarly, NASA failed to implement the recommendations on the thermal protection system that resulted to the Columbia Space Shuttle Disaster.

Why is it difficult to change an organizations culture (Cite the views of specific authors in the organizational theory literature.

According to  Richard (2009), organization culture forms one of the hardest aspects to change as it defines the peoples immediate identity.  As a result, changing the culture involves changing their identity a consideration that demands immediate holistic restructuring.  As a result, Henry (2008) argues that human nature becomes very resistant to changes due to lack of clarity of the new mechanism established.  This was the key factor which reduced the ability of all the NASA staff to cite and effectively address all possible sources of danger (Columbia Accident Investigation Board, 2003).  

According to the organization theory, application of a bureaucratic system in an organization shuts the need for effective contribution by all stakeholders especially in emphasis for change (Richard, 2009).  As evidenced by the two space shuttles crash, both the running of the organization and management of the space flights were bestowed on few individuals only.  As a result, the need for change through effective change agents at lower levels becomes almost impossible as employees either delimits them or fails getting the necessary incentives for creativity and innovation.

 What steps would you recommend and why
To effectively address the problem of culture in NASA organization, it would be very crucial that a new non bureaucratic structure that empowers all the parties in the organization (Columbia Accident Investigation Board, 2003).  From this consideration, it would be easy for all the stakeholders to make their contribution and therefore ensuring higher levels of perfectness in the assimilated ideas.  In addition to that, it would be important that the organization assimilates the concept of continuous improvement in the organization structure.  Under this consideration, NASA would become highly flexible by viewing every idea from a potential for improvement point of view (Henry, 2008).  Finally, the organization should seek to embrace external and internal analysis and assessment as a platform for raising its standards for positive contribution and therefore employ professional advice to invoke change agents views.  
 
PART III
HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMNT
Effective human resources management practices operations form the main basis for an organizations ability to apply ethical principles and therefore facilitate achievement of its objectives.
Describe, in layperson terms, what the end results of each function should be, if the function is being carried out properly

If the functions, of the human resources are carried out effectively, the result of affirmative action would be equal chances availability for both genders.  The classification of employees to different levels depending on their discipline would facilitate their faster reform from and easier observation by the departmental supervisors.  Besides, selection would further be entirely dependent on specific capabilities of an individual and totally devoid of discrimination and corruption.  Performance appraisal in the organization would further be based on the organizations objectives and established strategies.  Of key importance would be frequent training for the staff and constant exchange programs a consideration expected to result to high creativity and innovation.  Finally, the employees would be highly disciplined and cooperative with the authorities in the organizations resulting to reduced conflicts and resistance.

 Describe, for each HRM function, what Marys role should be (what specific actions she should take) and what Williams role should be (what specific actions he should take) in order to ensure that the desired end results you described in 1) above for each HRM function, are actually achieved.

Notably, Marys roles and Williams duties are highly complementary and should therefore take place concurrently.  For affirmative action, William should facilitate establishment of the correct policies for gender representation in the organization and foreseeing its employment.  Mary should on the other hand facilitate the same equality is replicated at the lower implementation levels.  In classification, both Mary and William should seek to categorize the employees depending on their discipline and hard-work and therefore easy for Mary to assess their improvement.   For employees selection, it would be the role of William to ensure that only those who are highly qualified get into the organization to facilitate greater creativity (Robert and John, 2007).  While William should draw performance appraisal based on the organization objective, Mary would be directly responsible for its application as employees conduct their tasks in the field.  Finally, Mary should frequently organize training sessions for the employees while William facilitates them with key logistics.   Notably, the element of discipline would be executed by both officers.  For Mary, she would address smaller cases, however, William would be involved in addressing sever cases.

Assume that a major scandal has occurred in a Sanitation District (not Marys). It involves several workers having taken bribes to remove, as part of their regular routes, certain items (e.g., hazardous waste, extra-bulky items) that Department regulations forbid workers to remove in that way. Decide explicitly which HRM function is most important, 2nd most important, 3rd most important, and 4th most important for the purpose of helping the Department to overcome the effects of the scandal.
It is worth noting that corruption scandals are indeed very negative and therefore must be addressed with great emphasis that restores public trust on the remaining officers (George, 2009).  To begin with, those involved would be effectively disciplined especially for the notion of taking bribes from the citizens.  Then they would be trained on the effective methods of carrying out regular routines to ensure that wrong methods are not used again.  Then the involved employees would further be classified as poorly disciplined and therefore subjected to more supervision in their duties. Finally, their improvement would facilitate their selection in the same section or even for possible promotion.

This criterion is considered to have high potential in facilitating change to the undisciplined employees.  The first step is a very harsh option and would therefore strongly reprimand their behavior while gathering the necessary public confidence.  Then, the next two would strongly create the skill for similar jobs and act as a reminder to the employees of the need for more through classification.  However, it is the last step that would facilitate more effort for the undisciplined employees to change their ways and therefore enjoy the benefits.  Therefore, this criterion was chosen due to its integrative nature that integrates disciplining while emphasizing on raising the working standards quality.    

The term   Middle East  is fraught with ambiguities with regards to the exact location or the geographical niche the region has in the world. As compared to the countries in the Americas and the Mediterranean regions, where borders and boundaries set the locations of each nation, the term can have wide and often clashing variations. The Arabian Peninsula has gained acceptance as part and parcel of the Middle Eastern Region, but what is left of the definition with regards to the exact location of the countries, or does the Middle East refer to a culture rather than to specific countries in that part of the globe. Some of the aggregations in the include Turkey as part of the Middle East often times, they are excluded and joined to Eurasia and even to the European continent (Julie Baumler, 2010).

Israel and the Palestine region are sometimes included in the map of the Middle East, but in differing with the case of Turkey, Israel is left out of the map for political reasons, and Palestine is not included since the state has no territorial boundaries. Along with the former Soviet republics, Afghanistan is often included in the map of the Middle East. Some differ not only in the countries to include in the map, but the term on to exactly term the region. Some call the region from The Near East, Western Asia, South west Asia to The Arabic World (Baumler, 2010).

In the many years of debate, often heated and mordant, and though the region has gained the status of a major power in world affairs. The term  Middle East  does not command a widely accepted connotation in a universal sense, even the term  Mid east  is only a loose abbreviation. The use of the term arose in the early part of this century with regards to defining the region surrounding the Persian Gulf. In the course of the Second World War, military bases and groups located around the Gulf expanded exponentially, and the Term  Middle East , rather than ascribing a second unit, was extended according to the tidings of the conflict (William Bayne Fisher, 1978, 7th, p.1).

The locating of significant military resources in the region gave rise to the need to reorganize the lives of the people affected by these activities, both in the political and economic arenas. This was done to address the changing circumstances in the conflict. A Minister of State was appointed to over see the regional political issues, and the Middle East Supply Centre was established to monitor the economic issue in the region. The territorial delegation soon became the accepted standard of reference for the  Middle East , acquiring the corresponding sanctions and the official term used in the publication of various reports on the topics of  surveys, economic development papers and political instances (Fisher, 1978, P.3).

Since that time, the Middle Eastern region has become the centre of global attention, more than any geographical area on the planet. With the extension of the area with the inclusion of Libya and Iran, and the areas inclusive of the countries of Turkey and the Sudan, it would be possible to propose on the level of geography to the existence of a region that will comprise the Middle East. One, if not the most outstanding feature of the area is the climate of the region. Since it is considered as a significant determinant in the way of life of the people in the region, climate is seen as a factor in the responses and activities of the people in the region. Though the unity in the region is only considered as a partial one, and that criteria is open to discussion but the elements of the environment and societal structure are resilient enough to treat the Middle East as a society (Fisher, 1978, p.4).

Climate
The temperatures and level of dryness increment as one crosses from the north to the south of the region. Altitude also plays a factor in the climate of the area , since the mountainous, giving rise to the presence of decreased temperatures and higher levels of rain is to be expected in the region. As such, winter temperatures and times of snow fall are to expected in countries such as Turkey and Iran, but is not expected in the lower countries such as Saudi Arabia. The system is altered by the influence of the Mediterranean Sea, and to lesser confines to the influence of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Coming to coast lines of the region, the extremities of temperature are altered as there an increment in the level of humidity (Ewan Anderson, William Fisher,  2000, p.32).

The Arabs A History
Though the focus of the paper is on the diverse Arab speaking peoples found in the Middle East, a thorough examination of the history of the Arabs will not be complete without looking at the origins of the people and that of whom is considered as the original Arab, the Bedouin nomads. Bedouin nomads cannot be portrayed as aimless wanderers, as they are the primary evidence of the human adapting to the changing conditions in the desert. They search for pasture land to feed their flocks. The practice of nomadism that the Nufud will allow them can be compared to the trait of industrialism in Detroit in the United States or in Manchester in the United Kingdom (Philip Khuri Hitti, 2000, p.9).

The land surface of the Arabian peninsula is dotted with three sides that faces  the sea and a fourth side that is covered by sand. In spite of the sheer size of the peninsula, the population remains small, reaching an approximate seven to eight million inhabitants. Geologists aver that the peninsula once formed the land bridge between the Arabian peninsula and the Sahara desert, now separated by the rift valley of the Nile Valley and the great crevice of the Red Sea and the sand laden area that travels through the central Asian region, cutting through central Persia and the Gobi Desert. Even if the area is located between two seas on the east and west, they are too small to change the continuous rainless spell prevalent on the African Asian continent (Hitti, 2000, p.10).

The Influence of Islam on the Arabian peninsula
The dominant religion in the Middle East, Islam, penetrate more than the spiritual and theological concerns of the people of the Middle East. The practice of their religion affects the daily conduct of the lives of the people in the Middle East, concerning politics, economic life, interpersonal as well as intra-personal relations, even touching on the conduct and practice of eating. To cite an example, Islam saturates a sense of loyalty in terms of politics contradictory to the tenets of nationalism that emanates from the West, as it also affects the view of an outsider towards the conduct of the Middle Eastern peoples. But perhaps the most significant factor that beguiles those on the outside desiring to understand the tenets of the religion is that of the fundamentalist initiative (Daniel Pipes, 1988).

Unlike the application of the religion by the more conservative and moderate amongst the Muslims, fundamentalists desire to strictly, even rigidly, apply all the tenets of the Islamic religion to every facet of their lives. Of the more popular fundamentalists, none has reached the stature than that of the former Iranian leader, the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, whose way of living the Islamic religion has either attracted or made Muslims feel a sense of nausea since coming to power in 1979. In his aversion towards the United States, he sees that, apart from the military might and American financial power, the values that are identified with the American culture are what he deems as the most significant threat to his drive to instil his radical Islamic vision for his country. In the field of clothes and food, even Marxism that is rooted in the United States, Khomeini looks upon these things with utter contempt (Pipes, 1988).

Pipes (1988) agrees with the fears that the former radical Iranian leader has about the problems akin to the American cultural system. For the last two hundred years, Muslims have absorbed a great deal from  Europe, and although at first Muslims only learned to adore and use what they can utilize for themselves, some, to their detriment, have absorbed more than what they can, or must, absorb. Inclusive of these  abnormalities  is the attitude of Christians towards the Jews. At first, these concerns gave rise to insignificant, almost non existent, threats to the ways of the peoples in the Middle East, in the past century and onto the present times, these have caused serious concern from the Arabs (Pipes, 1988).

These feelings of anti-Semitism gained a new definition with the creation of the state of Israel and the defeat at the hands of the Jews in their attempt to drive the Israelis out of the Arab homeland. During that time, the Arabs were awakened to the call of the  Demon  theorists of the Israelites that were rampantly moving around the European continent and over time, these were altered to suit the needs of the Arabs in their quest against the Israeli state (Pipes, 1988).

Western recognition of Islamic power
The insurrection in Iran resulted in many Western observers to recognise the latent power in the Islamic religion. So that the West will not be caught off guard again and to compensate for their lack of attention these past times, they over affirmed the importance of the events. Thus, when the conflict broke out between Iran and Iraq in 1980, many, instead of pointing out the dispute between the states, turned the angle on the conflict between the Sunni and the Shiite separat6ion and thus parleyed the war into what would amount to the Islamic Republic challenging the Iraqi nation (Pipes, 1988).

In addition to the Islamic dominance in the region, another important factor in the treatment of the Arabs is the presence of huge deposits of oil. Regardless of the attention that has been heaped to concerns on the oil supply after the oil embargo in 1973, an important element was conveniently left out of the equation, the consumption and spending paragon of the exporters of the precious commodity in the Middle East. The assumption was that the exporters were awash with money and that state would remain for an indefinite period of time. This premise is contrary to conventional human nature as time passed, the exporters began the familiar act of spending more than they can generate. When the supply of oil in the early 80s began to exceed the demand, price began to spiral downward, affecting the economies of the exporting countries (Pipes, 1988).

The countries that benefited the most from the increased oil prices were also the ones that suffered the most economic damage with the glut in supply in the 80s. But the most glaring anomaly in the situation was the state of the countries masses in the course of the high oil prices. Though the countries raked in huge profits with their oil sales, many of the people in these countries still hugged or fell below the poverty line. Due to their dearth in modern proficiency, they have considerable power in terms of economics but are completely helpless to external influences. (Pipes, 1988).

Globalization and Democracy Views from the Arabian Peninsula
Globalization
There are a number of terms that have been used in more frequency and widely quoted but is less than clearly used than the term of globalization. In the beginning of the middle of the 1980s, the volume of books and articles written on the idea of globalization has increased dramatically. The definitions of the term do not have a single standard terminology, ranging from the definition of Martin Albrow (1990), which states that globalization refers to the sum total of all processes that mould the peoples of the world into a single global society, or that of Roland Robertson (1987) stating that globalization can be considered as the accumulation of the entire world as a single place. Apart from definitions, the term globalization also deviate on the emphasis of the term, with regards to the political, technological, sociocultural and economic aspects of society (Sheila Croucher, 2004, p.10).

According to some scholars, the primary engine of globalization is economics,
citing the case of the actions of the multinational business organizations, whose role in the global production scheme is bridging the outer reaches of the globe. But the mechanism of economies do not engage in a political vortex, as nations still conduct themselves ans regulators and often times challengers of the event of globalization, as is the case with a growing number of global governmental and non governmental groups. But the action of globalization is the interdependence of nations in the economic and political arena, and these actions can only be achieved with the appropriate changes in technological background (Croucher, 2004, p.11).

As earlier stated, the central arena of globalization is the aspect of economics, hence the focus on the operation of the tenets of capitalism and the operation of the marketplace as the main engines and the cardinal barometer with which to measure global interconnectivity. In the 1997 definition laid down by the European Commission, it defined globalization as   the process that markets and production means located in various countries are incrementally becoming ancillary as a result of the mechanics of trade in goods and the flow of finances and technology.  In a more recent attempt at defining globalization, the Institute for National Strategic Studies stated that globalization is the process of flows across borders that tend to draw countries and regions in a closer circle, resulting in the creation of growing ties to each other (Croucher, 2004, p.13).

Globalization in the Arab World
The subject of globalization has been the topic of discussion among members of business and the academe for quite some time. Though to reiterate an earlier statement that to date, there is no accepted single definition of globalization, many Islamic movements view globalization as a hindrance to the creation of an  Islamic regime   at the least, or to greater extent, the existence of a conspiracy against  the creation of such a regime, a view that is shared by both conservative and radical factions of Muslims. Many see the acceptance of the tenets of globalization as an acceptance into the Mid east scheme of Israel and a rejection of the Arab society (Mohammed Abed al-Jabri).

The accepted operation of the term globalization, in the context of Arabs, is to make a commodity or ideology into a global product, changing something with a limited scope and market and making that into something without boundaries. The product here being altered to fit onto the global scheme is the nation state, it with the rigid controls over it borders and the flow of goods in and out of the entity. As is, nation states guard themselves against any form of external interposition or threats, be it in the form of economic, social or political meddling. The unlimited entity is the global society, and with the two commodities defined, globalization will mean that the nation state must remove all economic level and the allowance of global market forces to operate in the country (Abed al-Jabri).  

As the term became popular in the United States with a sense for the expansion of the American ideals and culture, Arabs as well as other peoples tend to view it as nothing more than a model of governance and life patterned after that which is being practised in the United States. A such, Arab members of the academe and political analysts equate the acceptance of globalization as yielding to the whims and models of society in the United States. In other words, does the action of globalization be connoted to the actions of another wave of colonialism that is being espoused by the linkages in markets and technological advances (Abed al-Jabri)

Cultural Globalization
When globalization is introduced in the realm of culture, the action will mean that all culture will, or must, fall under one standard of acceptable culture -a Westernisation of all cultures to be acceptable to all, all being elements in the West. Globalization has indeed fostered greater avenues for communication of different cultures, resulting in the creation of transnational communities and composite identities. But the action of globalization has also created aversion against the act of globalization by different identities.  The hostility against globalization has been espoused by religious fundamentalist movements, that desire to create the traditional ways, inclusive of the patriarchal ways of life, in opposition to the globalist trend in the West (Valentine Moghadam, 2002, p.2).

The worldwide action against terrorism has placed the Middle East squarely in the sights of the United States and the West. Americans are the daily recipients of anti American feelings, but former American leaders have been highly active in the region, underlying the significance of the region to national policy makers. The significance of the Middle East lies not only in its geographical location, but also in the abundance of its most valuable resource, oil. More than 30 percent of the oil produced in 2005 came from Middle Eastern well, and approximately 60 percent of the worlds oil reserves lie underneath the Middle Eastern sands (Howard Wiarda, 2007, p. 194).

Modern military machines run on oil, and the access to these resources determined the outcomes of the two global conflicts. Should the United States and its allies be denied access to that resource, then the impact on the military aspect will just as large as the economic impact on America. But even with the critical importance of the region, it is not exempt from the instability in the political and economic areas in the region. Due to the influence of the United States in the region in the era of the Cold War, the region has been falling behind other regions in the world and is sorely lacking in the process of integration in the globalist trend (Wiarda, 2007, p. 195).      

Comparing the Middle Eastern and the North African (MENA) regions, it can be said that the bloc is sorely lagging in the aspect of assimilating its trade and finance mechanisms to that of the global trading market. This is maybe due that the region is seen only as a major trader of oil rather than a destination of direct foreign financial inflows. For the women, they are, as a sector, have fewer numbers that hold down jobs than other women in the world, and their participation in the economic activity is less than their Western counterparts (Moghadam, 2003).  

The Identity Politics and globalisation The birth of a new culture
In general, Arabs do nor outright reject the acceptance of other cultures, assimilating them into their own and appreciating the differences of each. The rejection among the peoples of the Middle East is connected with the era of globalization is the encumbrance of accepting that the Western values and norms of society be deemed as universally acceptable. Islamic fundamentalist radicals reject this homogenization on the basis that the acceptance of the Western values go against their desire to establish their own brand of globalization based on the tenets of the Islamic religion. Moderate Arab scholars call for the acceptance of globalization as a process of compliance with the United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights, stating that all nations have a right to be sovereign and independent bereft of political or cultural interference (Mohamed El-shibiny, 2005, p.15).

But what is common to all Arab scholars, be they moderate, conservative or radical, is the repudiation of encumbrance of a single universal set of values and norms on all Arab communities. The aspect of cultural universalism is the unethical imposition of values and ways of life upon another people, with the intent of replacing those values, religious pursuits, customs and traditions and way of life, similar to the actions practised in the earlier period of colonial activity in the last 400 years. Arab scholars repudiate the call from some  the West to unilaterally impose some from of the culture that is present in the West to acquiesce the Middle East with the practices that is alien to their culture. The solution to the dilemma is not hegemony, the imposition of what the values are called as acceptable, but synergy, working with the alternative cultures to strengthen one and the other (El-shibiny,  2005,p.15).

If the process of globalization includes factors of expansion and subjugation, the effects on the countries that have yet to completely liberate themselves from the binds of colonial pasts have still to be adduced (Abed al- Jabri). Until recenty, the term  globalization  was unheard of, becoming more used in the aftermath of the collapse of the Soviet Union and its allied states, thus heralding the demise of the communist dogma. That void was filled by the doctrines of Western capitalism as the indisputable political, economic and military power in the world, also a factor in the plan to found a New World paradigm that seeks to advocate a liberal global economic emporium tethered to the establishment of a global culture, democracy, human rights and integration (El-shibiny, 2005, p. 16).

But the democracy that we seek to establish is in the context of the Arab world, and not on the Western principles that the rest of the modern world seeks to impose. In the opinion of Lebanese Prime Minister Fouad Siniora, the concept of democracy in the Middle East has been growing in part to the thrust of globalization. According to Siniora, the growth of democracy in the Arab world will not only benefit the Middle East, but the rest of the world. But he added that the peaceful resolution of the conflict between the Arabs and the Muslims is key to the continued growth of democracy in the region (Strategic Foresight Group, 2007).

The Birth of the Modern Middle East Culture
In the book of Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism (1994), Said states that in all national cultures, there is an desire to be sovereign, one that can influence and dominate. This is true in the cultures of the Japanese, French, British and Indian cultures (Edward Said, 1994, p.16). Ilan Pappe (2005) cites Said in his book , The modern Middle East, as giving two definitions of culture, one that is expanded and the other as being limited. In the expanded version, culture covers all aspects of life, while the definition of culture in the limited sense points to the conduct of the practices, such as descriptive art, representation  and communication that is separated from the social, political and economic elements of life, whose primary purpose is the attainment of pleasure (Ilan Pappe, 2005, p.163).

Many of the stories that portray the cultural aspects of the Middle East has been narrate mostly by outsiders. Outsiders slanted the story, either deliberately or unconsciously, to possess the people of the culture. In the last three decades, Muslim scholars, many based outside of the Middle East, have been critical of the narration as essayed by outsiders, reconstructed the story and gave other versions of the cultural history of the peoples. But even with the efforts of these scholars, the Western definition and understanding of Middle Eastern culture still pervaded the hay that society looks upon the Middle East and the cultures of the people (Pappe, 2005, p.163).

The era of globalization will continue to saturate various societies across the globe. As this fact will continue into the long term future, the discussion will now centre on the need for the societies to assert themselves, recognize their own cultural value and new definitions of life apart from their traditional beliefs and norms. Critical to this definition of culture in the context of a world that is on the path toward globalization is the need for others to recognize their culture and the attendant action of learning to coexist with the other cultures seeking recognition and acceptance. Islamic cultures, identities and interests are to considered dynamic and developing, with the sector of reform minded Muslims having proven their capability to develop hybrids string enough to dispute with existing regimes (Mahmood Monshipouri, 2009, p. vii).

But the sector of the radical or militant Muslims have outright rejected or disputed any form of intermarriage or exposure to foreign cultures. The defiant stance on the acceptance of foreign cultures has been linked to the relentless war America has waged against terrorism. Shiism, with its strict adherence on the practice of Islamic beliefs, the right of declaring a holy war or Jihad, and the virtue of sacrifice, has engendered a pan-Islamic identity of defiance and hostility that is spreading in the Middle Eastern region. The era of globalization had developed both restraints and avenues for cultural politics in the Middle East. In the ideology of the West, globalization has centred on the design to acquiesce non Western societies to Western social norms and values (Monshipouri, 2009, p. 1).

As opposed to the desired saturation of these non Western traits and traditions with the more acceptable western notions of culture, the targeted non  Western nations view the globalization trend, and the imposition of the Western culture, the non Westernised states view globalization as a form of domination, a new form of colonialism being thrust upon them.  Many in the West see the era of globalization as the superior set of values and policy structure, the non Western societies see globalization as a flawed form of universalism. This is the main reason that the mention of the term globalization has called for the reactions of others to segregate themselves into a particular aggregation, especially in terms of religion and nationhood (Monshipouri, 2009, p.1).  

With more than a billion followers scattered across the globe, Islam is the most credible challenge to the cultural mores of the Western concept of the factor of culture. The practice of the Islamic religion is giving other nations an option of another political and moral viewpoint to that which is being forced upon them by the Western powers. The discontinuing action of European Muslims of unbundling religion and culture have desired a new avenue of community building as a subset of umma- a globalist Islamic religion created through transnational identities of Muslims and networks (Monshipouri, 2009, p. 240).

The approach is seen to the contribution to the accruing Westernisation in Muslim immigrants, as many of the European Muslims display overlapping and multiple identities. This is to say that a Muslim follower can be devout in hisher religion and a devoted citizen in a European country, as many Muslims tend to be assimilationist to cultures around them. At present, Muslims utilize the concepts of human rights and minority rights to enhance their values and to essay them in a Westernised manner. For example, Muslim women that are discriminated in educational opportunities and employment rights or to wear the hijab file legal actions to claim anti discrimination law protection. A revival in Islamic traditions can thus be experienced in the context of modern and Western practices of societal and employment conduct while internalizing such modern concepts (Monshipouri, 2009, p.240).

In examining the approaches of studying the Islamic interpretations, there are two means to study the interpretations of the Islamic religion Jihadi and Ijihatdi. The former espouses a strict following of the Islamic religion as stated in the written pages  of the Islamic holy book , the Quran. The Jihadi presentation of the

The global economy has significantly transformed the social, economic, political and educational landscape of the modern generation of the twenty-first century in an indelible and a profound manner. This change is brought about by numerous interactive forces which include globalization, information and communication technology and trade liberalization.

The ending global financial crisis for instance is a good lesson that banks should learn of their inadequate and inefficient levels of their managerial provision. This is not only alleged to the banks solely but to the wider financial market that comprises of non-bank financial intermediaries, mortgage lending institutions and others. Basically, the ending subprime mortgage crisis that plunged the entire world into a misfit of financial distress was one important regulatory attribute that put the complex world of the banking industry in a complex state of managerial inquiry. However, the banks were to learn from their mistakes over the sub-optimal scopes of performance in terms of their management. Following various modes and models of their managerial process, they plunged themselves into subprime lending where the borrowers had no capacity to get financial loans from the banks.

It is in the view of many economists that banks in the future will be working with more equity, less leverage ratio and tougher liquidity authorities. This has been one of the responsive prospects that are seen as important conceptions to address the prevalent managerial problems that arise to banks from sub-optimal level of liquidity, equity and leverage levels. They have constantly hedged towards equivocal proximities of their jurisdiction, and thus coming up with inadequate methods of lending, evaluation of their balance sheets, effect on the existing shareholder value and more important in partial influence of their competitive levels within the market, p.38. Pursuant to such optimal levels of jurisdiction therefore, they are bound to more efficient and focused process which limit the chances of financial mismanagement and controls. The new global economy is heavily built on a tradition of innovations which involves the coming up of new economic ideas, novel technologies and wholly new initiatives which are required for a dynamic generation with ever demanding needs of effectiveness in all circles. The growth and development of economy in the changing global economy has been followed by multifaceted structural rearrangement of collective business enterprises, investment streams, the implementation of a market approach niche and the production process transformation. The global economic landscape has necessitated the effective integration of the modern technologies in the domain of communication and access to information which has as a result enhanced competition in international trade forum. All the factors combined have led the complete reorganization of the economic society.

It is fundamental to recognize the role of innovations in acting as a catalyst for driving the engine of economic growth of states in the new global economy. The new methods of operating business which have resulted from the changes in globalization can be linked to the changes we see in the modern generation. For instance, the traditional way of accounting was fast replaced by the use of computer software which made work of accounting to be much easier. In a nutshell, it can rightly be said that the global economic landscape which has, in large part, been caused by the changing trends of business operation and globalization, has made much transformations in the modern generation.

An incompatible relationship
In the 1970s a process began that saw an increasing number of corporations reach beyond the boundaries of their home country. This multinationalization increased in the 1990s and 2000s as communication and business technologies improved. It is part of a larger economic and cultural phenomenon called Globalization.

Corporations benefit from the access to foreign markets as well as from the resources foreign nations hold. During this ongoing process there has been much focus on the third world - those countries lagging behind in economic development, living standards and, sometimes, in human rights. Are these nations benefiting from globalization, or are they simply being exploited Multinational corporations are central figures in this debate. Meanwhile, the trend toward massive multinational corporations shows no sign of abating.

Proponents of these types of corporations argue that poorer countries benefit from the employment and efficiency they bring. In some cases this appears to be true. In other cases it does not. As the corporation becomes a larger and larger influence within countries that often have little political stability or corporate structure a question beyond dollars and cents must be considered - Are these countries losing their sovereignty under the pervading influence of the multinational corporation The question is complex and the answer is not as straightforward as it might appear .After outlining the process by which the current trends in international economics came about, this paper will discuss the issue of sovereignty from several perspectives.

Rise of the Multinationals - Theory and Practice
Embedded liberalism is a term coined by Professor of International Relations John Ruggie. Mr. Ruggie described a situation in the era after the two World Wars where economic relations were based on two main tenets. Nations sought to expand international trade and integrate new markets as a means to greater internal and external economic security. The second tenet involved preservation of national sovereignty. For purposes of internal stability nations should be able to make important decisions, such as what level of social welfare to provide, in an unfettered way.

The concept seeks to strike a balance between the extremes of protectionist policies and a completely unregulated state of free market capitalism. In the period between the two World Wars a wave of protectionism swept the globe. The terrible suffering of World War One created a situation in which countries wanted their relationships, economic included, to remain as unengaged as possible.

This irrational but understandable overreaction created an economic landscape that only contributed to the worldwide depression that would strike in the 1930s. The theory of Embedded liberalism implied that order would not be established by one or two overpowering nations, but by the cooperation of all nations. In sense it could be thought of as an economic United Nations, not ruled by a central body but by establishing a greater sense of fairness in economic competition and cooperation.

Inside this framework corporate structure has been changing around the world. Many companies are expanding to become multi-national entities. Others are forming as multi-national

firms from the beginning. Local, national and international economics and politics are affected. Companies would not make this change unless they expected to make money in the process. By expanding globally companies can position themselves for access to new markets and gain a wider range of finance possibilities.

Also many companies have expanded for the purpose of finding low-cost labor. This has engendered the most controversy for reasons of human rights and because some companies have exerted what is seen as undue influence on foreign governments in order to maintain competitive advantages. The degree to which this practice is accepted will determine how much the sovereignty of that nation may be eroded. It is all part of a modern phenomenon called Globalism.

In the largest sense of the term, Globalization is a social and economic theory entailing a wide variety political, and social business practices. It is based upon the idea that greater international connectedness and free trade will allow for wealthier countries to thrive while lifting up nations in which poverty has been endemic for decades. The goal is admirable, but it may not be achievable. Criticism has focused on exploitive practices by huge multinational corporations putting vulnerable people at risk. In turn, the sovereignty of these nations these people inhabit is at risk. Meanwhile, some multinationals are making record profits even at a time of recession. Poorer countries risk becoming so beholden to the companies their sovereignty as a nation is sacrificed.              

Multinational is a term to describe corporations that not only sell their goods overseas but also locate some of the levers of production there. Communications technology has improved dramatically in recent years allowing companies greater access to foreign markets and labor sources. The flow of goods then moves in both directions. The company may also have a large untapped market .to sell to. Proponents of globalization claim that it has lifted millions out of desperate poverty and will continue to do so as long as trade and business can operate unfettered.  According to Quinlivan

Evidence supplied by the World Bank and United Nations strongly suggests
that multinational corporations are a key factor in the large improvement in
welfare that has occurred in developing countries over the last forty years.
(2000)

At the same time there are tradeoffs that a nation hosting a large multinational corporation must make. Doing so may affect a nations ability to pursue its other internal and external goals. An emerging Neo-liberal stance in terms of free trade has raised concerns that the presence of large multinational corporations can have undue effects on the sovereignty of some nations, particularly poorer ones.

Policy Sovereignty
Initially it was into the framework of Embedded liberalism that multinational corporations began to form. During the second half of the twentieth century this theoretical framework began to dissolve. Adrian Jones of McMaster University argues that this weakening occurred because of the push for greater liberalization of trade and employment policies (2010).

As the multinational corporations became larger and more profitable they pushed harder to gain favorable Neo-liberal policies. The term liberal, in this sense, applies to the desire for a situation in which regulatory schemes are minimal or non-existent. The result was competitive pressures which diminish the domestic economic autonomy of states (Jones, 2010).

An example of this might be a situation in which a nation lowers its rate of taxation to draw investments from foreign private sources, the IMF or the World Bank. Because of the lower rate of taxation the nation may be restrained from pursuing domestic goals like universal health care. Externally, its financial relationships with outside entities could influence diplomatic and societal relationship with others around the world.

In 2003 there was a major push to enact new free trade agreements in Cancun, Mexico. The fact that no agreements were reached was a sign that nations were feeling insecure about their own sovereignty. Trade policy works hand-in-hand with the success or failure of multinational corporations and the corresponding amount of influence they have over individual governments.

Multinational corporations need a free trade structure in order to thrive. Otherwise they are unable to exploit competitive advantages. By 2003, some governments were becoming nervous that the scales had tipped too far in favor of the corporations interests. The failure to realize some of the grander promised benefits of globalization chastened them against maintenance of the status quo.

Whether or not their fears were justified the trend toward global free trade was altered at Cancun. Ngaire Woods summarized the events of this international trade summit
The failure to conclude new multilateral agreements highlights that many
governments have doubts about the balance between integrating into the
world economy and retaining sovereignty (Woods, 2003).

Economic Sovereignty
Multinational corporations have faced criticism due to a perception that they are unjustly exploiting the labor of third world nations. As part of the process of doing this, some may be trying to affect the internal policies and governance of these countries. The result is a loss of sovereignty as the country is forced to bend more and more to the demands of the corporation, which can always move elsewhere.

Alphonsal and Dhanaseeh describe the process this way The cost of production is cheap in MNCs and they capture foreign market against international competitions and offer competitive advantage internationally (2003). There is no question that many companies have benefited from global expansion. An inevitable result has been a global business community that is more intertwined than ever before.  Technology and business have also been partners in creating a more connected world culture.

In some instances, multinational corporations have colluded with the governments of powerful economic nations and powerful militaries to expand their influence overseas. Critics call this the new imperialism. This alliance is in a unique position to exploit weaker countries and export consumerism and its division of labor across the globe. For example

Clearly, U.S. transnational corporations, U.S. civilian government and
U.S. military establishment form a triple alliance to make of developing
economies the natural extension of their global businesses.
(Robinson, 1998)

Still powerful on their own, the interests backing multinational corporations are working to alter the structure of international trade. In recent years their efforts have been to step away from the safeguards of the past. This is a concerning development for the future sovereignty of more vulnerable nations.

In the 2000s a conglomeration of international corporations worked toward a major multilateral agreement that would essentially put into written form the shift away from embedded liberalism that had been occurring for several decades. The Multilateral Agreement on Investment weakened some of the safeguards against corporate exploitation and strengthened the overall financial power of the multinational corporations.

Companies were not only given greater access to foreign markets, they were given the right to move any and all profits made from these markets out of the host country. Meanwhile the obligations inherent on the corporations under embedded liberalism were conspicuously absent from the MAI. The ultimate aim of the agreement is to stabilize the conditions and minimize the risks of foreign investment.

In a direct affront to national sovereignty the MAI allows for investors and investor groups, including multinational corporations, to challenge national trade and investment policies. An entity that thinks that the host country is in some way violating the MAI can have the issue submitted for international arbitration. A panel of three judges then decides the case.

Two entities not directly connected to any multinational corporation but still assisting in their pursuits are the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. To their credit these two organizations have poured billions into infrastructure development in poorer regions of the world. At the same time, critics argue that these organizations have also burdened these countries with unsustainable levels of debt while favoring developed nations in their lending practices.

The ultimate effect is that poorer countries sovereignty is put more at risk. In effect they are forced to accept multinational corporations from a position of weakness. In a worst case scenario the corporations may engage in such practices as political pressure, vote buying and bribery to maintain political regimes favorable to them. In such a case the rights of the individual may be severely threatened. Unethical corporations, outside the boundaries of the United States or any other regulating entity may engage in exploitation of the local population, sometimes with tragic consequences.

Several events in the late 1990s brought about concerns that the world, fostered by multinational business, may be a little bit too connected. An economic crisis in Asia that could have remained relatively isolated in the past spread throughout much of Asia. In effect, the crisis fed itself as panic bounced back and forth between the entangled Asian economies. In some cases it had devastating effects
...the crisis produced a collapse in living standards. In 1998, per capital GDP
fell 57 per cent in Indonesia, 29 per cent in Malaysia, 26 per cent in Thailand
and 22 per cent in the Philippines.
(Chirathivat and Murshed 2001).

These economies were still somewhat in recovery in 2007 when the worldwide recession hit. Some argue that the interconnectedness of world economies ultimately leads to a loss of national sovereignty for more vulnerable nations. Because it is increasingly difficult for countries to avoid economic crises in other parts of the world any economic gains they may have made because of multinationalization are quickly erased. Larger, more economically and politically stable nations are able to withstand such crises.

Smaller developing nations are forced to look even more to international corporations or international sources of funds in order to stabilize their teetering economies. In politically unstable countries this is even more the case. Leaders must do whatever they have to in order to right the economic ship. If not they risk political insurrection. The deals they are forced to make in order to avoid this are likely to sacrifice some national autonomy in the process. Then those nations face tremendous debt, making them even more beholden to outside forces.

Resource Sovereignty
Another perspective to view sovereignty is from the standpoint of natural environments. A nations greatest resource and means of sovereignty, it is argued, is its environment. Critics of globalization claim that policies such as the North American Free Trade Agreement and the multinational corporations it spawns have had a deleterious effect on the environment in a number of countries. International corporations are more concerned with mining the wealth of the host country, rather that establishing a sustainable model of growth that benefits that country as a whole.

Too often, studies done on the environmental, economic and sovereignty impacts of multilateral agreements and corporatization do not see the light of day. The public is not aware of potentially bad effects until the damage has already been done. This is particularly true in developing nations, young democracies and dictatorships where accurate information can be hard to come by. Rampant deforestation in South America is one example in which multinational concerns have eroded a national asset at an unsustainable pace.

How are the corporations able to do this Some critics argue that companies are exploiting their positions within foreign nations in order to loosen environmental safeguards. The process can involve political and economic intrigue
Such allegations include the charge that profit-motivated multinational
corporations are engaging in destructive competition and insidious plots to
economically and politically manipulate entire economies
(Quinlivan, 2000).

Emerging markets are the potential gold mines for well-positioned multi-national firms. Markets in India, China and southeast Asia have billions of potential customers with relatively little competition. Access to these markets could help fulfill the promise of globalization. Much depends on ethical corporate and political leadership though.

These regions are also rich in natural resources. Using them responsibly in a way that does not deplete them and minimizes the damage to the worldwide environment is a major challenge for the 21st century. Preserving these resources can preserve the sovereignty of the countries where they exist while also providing an ongoing source of profit for multinational companies.

SocialCultural Sovereignty
Scrutiny of elements of globalization, including the multinational corporation, has increased in the early 21st century. A recession felt world wide has prompted a more internal focus for some nations.  Free trade protesters are increasingly influential. For politicians it is a difficult position. According to Altman free trade might be better for everyone in the long term. But, politicians usually work on a shorter schedule (2007).

The future of globalization and, to some, extent and the future of multinational corporations are not assured. The technology that helped spur this trend is likely to continue its improvement. Politics, however, may turn out to be a major constraining force on multinationalization.

Voters in some countries have begun to dislike some of the side effects that seem to come in the course of having multinational corporations doing business there. Globalization can deliver benefits across the world economy. This requires governments to give up some areas of national autonomy and to play by international rules (Woods, 2003).

A major issue that has arisen in the context of multinational corporations involves the use of outsourcing. In its simplest definition, outsourcing is the exporting of jobs to other nations. It is often done simply because labor costs are cheaper in other regions. There are also political, taxation and other reasons for outsourcing. In some cases the business may be attempting to gain inroads into the consumer base of the second country. It may also be that the second country has a larger supply of employees with a particular skill that is valuable to the corporation. The practice is not without controversy, however.

Outsourcing can increase efficiency and profitability, though the results are not always easily predictable. Many companies have found outsourcing to be a productive cost-saving move. Others have not. Companies incur a certain amount of risk in entering foreign business environments. The trend toward outsourcing is likely to continue as technology continues to improve.

Outsourcing corporations face political pressure both in the home country and in the country where jobs are being moved. Even before the recent recession focused public opinion on the issue it was becoming an issue in local and national elections. Some countries have taken protectionist measures to restrict this practice and others are currently considering such measures,

The desire for endless growth and the fear of decline can lead to the overlooking or toleration of unethical and exploitive practices (Steingart, 2008). Once a struggling country experiences any form of growth it is likely not to rock the boat in any way. In defense of the corporations it is a daunting task for multinational companies to operate in what is not one global environment but many national and local environments.

Local politics are always a factor in the success or failure of a multinational company. In 21st century globalization that situation is trickier than ever. Corporations operate now in dozens of countries and even more localities. Many companies see their involvement in the politics of foreign countries as completely defensible. In fact, it comes with the territory of operating any business within a foreign country. In other words the company, and the benefits it brings, would be unlikely to survive if the country did not play the political game.

Government and business relations give privileges to big conglomerates
in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand. The limited progress in dismantling these
kinds of government business relations diminishes the Southeast Asian ability
to enforce new policies, and also leads to the erosion of the strength of the regions
business management.
(Chirathivat and Murshed 2001)

The growth of multinational corporations in places such as India has posed some complex problems. Many smaller entities in the country have been forced either to go out of business or to sell themselves to the larger multinational corporation. These corporations have both brought opportunities and eliminated others. A business community once focused on localism is becoming increasingly global-focused in nature. These changes have an effect on the individual on the street as well as the national government. Social tradition, stability and control have been altered.

The global consumerism culture is making inroads in India. Consumption has increased in the 2000s at an average rate of about 3 per yearper capita (Alphonsal and Dhanaseeh, 2003). Education is now more job-oriented and competition for those jobs is increasingly fierce. In the process the very foundation of Indian culture is being changed. Globalism and multinational business have become embedded in Indian culture and the resulting changes are still unfolding. The changes in sovereignty are uncertain but it is clear that there will be an effect of some kind simply based on the internal changes that have already occurred because of globalization.

 At the same time per capita consumption is increasing, poverty in India is also increasing. Multinational firms and globalization have forced a shift away from the traditional agricultural economy of the country. Income and standard of living between different regions of India are becoming increasingly disparate. The result is a growing social problem that in itself can affect national sovereignty. The benefits of having an economy based increasingly upon multinational corporations have been anything but uniform.

Neo-liberalism entails heightened trade and financial liberalization internationally
and, at least to some degree, creates competitive pressures which diminish the
domestic economic autonomy of states.
(Jones, 2010)

Reactions and Trends
The backlash to Neo-liberalism that began to surface during the early 2000s was only enhanced by the worldwide recession that hit in 2008. Internal pressures are forcing some European nations to return to more protectionist trade schemes.

To some extent the loss or gain of sovereignty lies in the eyes of the beholder. To some the political and economic efforts made to land major conglomerates is worth the price. There are nations around the world that have been suffering endemic poverty for decades. Bowing to international regulations and corporate demands in exchange for thousands of jobs and millions in foreign investment is a no-brainer. At the same time, it is important that the nations that make these deals have at least some semblance of democratic governance. Otherwise, exploitation of workers will be rampant and all benefits will fall to the regime and the corporation.

Globalism promises economic freedom for those who have never had it. Whether this is actually happening or not is subject to debate. The global recession, if not derailing the multinationalization of business has at least slowed it down. A realization has set in that the world is so interconnected a recession in one part of the world will very likely become one for the entire world.

The United States and some other wealthier nations have seen erosion in their sovereignty in the form of job loss. Jobs have been relocated to parts of the world where the business finds employment conditions more favorable. Much of the U.S. manufacturing base has been deported. Free trade proponents say this is just the inevitable result of pure competition. Advantages will come to the United States in other ways.

To critics the loss of major sectors of the U.S. economy makes it more dependent on other nations. Worse yet, companies overseas are able to exploit workers to a degree not possible in the United States. Put another way multinational corporations are eroding the sovereignty of wealthy and poorer nations simultaneously. It is the corporatization of the worlds assets.

Exploitation of foreign labor markets is certainly nothing new. One of the earliest examples of outsourcing in the modern economy occurred in regards to the American textile industry. As an increasing number of textile employees became unionized in the mid 20th century, corporations responded by moving their production facilities overseas to unregulated labor markets. The loss of large parts of the manufacturing sector, it could be argued, diminishes the sovereignty of the United States. It certainly makes it less independent.

In the 1980s and 1990s a series of scandals came to light about the questionable human rights practices of these companies overseas. These included the operation of sweatshops, absence of basic safety regulations and the usage of child labor, all reminiscent of practices that occurred in the United States in the early 20th century. Many of these companies were forced to improve conditions, at least temporarily, by public pressure which ultimately led to eroding stock prices.

Today, outsourcing continues. Most companies at least must provide a minimally safe working environment. Instead of the direct exploitation of labor, many companies have turned their focus toward lobbying foreign governments for highly favorable terms. A multinational company seeking to move in to a relatively undeveloped country can be a daunting presence. The companys profits alone may rival the Gross National Product (GNP) of the country they are seeking to enter.

Smaller, undeveloped nations have realized in recent years that the presence of huge multinational corporations makes them more vulnerable to economic downturns. Meanwhile, people in larger nations are drawing the same conclusions about their economies in an interconnected business world. Together, these factors have led both to reconsider current international business and finance trends. As the recession continues and the exploitation of poorer nations comes to light the world is becoming more focused on the possible dangers of corporitization. Adrian Jones of McMaster University writes that
...widespread social disillusionment with such institutional arrangements and
policy agendas may fuel reform. Though there may be widespread support for
global market integration, such enthusiasm may be undermined if states fail to
provide essential aspects of social and economic security.
(2010)

Meanwhile, the trend in Global trade in recent years has moved toward bilateral or regional agreements. These agreements are less problematic than multilateral arrangements and give individual nations a greater sense of autonomy. Nations can make more natural pacts with local and political allies. These agreements are not free from difficulty. They do have greater potential however for maintaining national autonomy within a global economy.  The roles multinational corporations will play within these new trade structures are still being developed. Critics of view regional trade agreements (RTA) claim that the competing factions within them dampen the chances for attaining multilateral agreements. RTAs set preference requirements that can have undue effects on countries not within the agreements. Political tension and economic retaliation may occur as a result. Bilateral agreements forcing even trade in themselves can also diminish national sovereignty.

There is no scheme that can guarantee universal fairness. Nor can any trade structure automatically increase standards of living and maintain autonomy. Bilateral or regional agreements can allow nations participate in free trade, sponsor multinational corporations and possibly enter into larger agreements as their economies mature.

International regulation can play role in ensuring sovereignty, even within regional and bilateral trade agreements. The key is to design regulatory strategies that are not only responsive to democratic forces, but enhance them as well. In Information Habitat an outline for a comprehensive and responsive regulatory scheme is given


Decision-making processes should rely primarily on participatory democracy
and not market forces. Bilateral and multilateral institutions must be created
democratically and designed primarily to promote social, economic and environmental
sustainability.
(Information Habitat, 2010)

Regardless of the trade structure, some regulations must be imposed on multinationals in order to ensure that they are not exploiting foreign workers or dominating national governments. Such regulations are not in the short-term interest of the corporations because they are likely to impact profits and efficiency. They are in the interest of corporate health in the long-term, however. They put the companies at less risk of international, regional and local backlash to their practices. A multinational corporation that remains tone deaf to these factors does so at its own risk.

Concluding thoughts
History never moves in straight line and neither do international economics. The definitions and boundaries of globalization are ever changing. Multinational corporations may be able to affect national sovereignty in the short term, but only to the degree the people in that society let it. Put another way, nations, by and large, function at the discretion of individuals. These individuals have the power, more than ever, to affect the global marketplace. The state can be beholden to corporations in the short term. If this is not meeting the needs of individuals the system will change eventually, one way or another.

This being said, individuals and states must have some level of protection from exploitation in the short term. In a time of economic difficulty multinational corporations are looking to push any advantage they have. An international regulatory scheme that eventually returns us to a state of embedded liberalism can help meet the needs of business, individuals and nations alike.

Studies about the effects of multinational corporations on national sovereignty have obtained mixed results. The reason for the difficulties in measuring these effects comes down to a fundamental question - What constitutes sovereignty A study by Scott Turner in Southeastern Political Review noted the problem this study framework often suffers from a lack of clarity regarding the meaning of sovereignty and the nature of the evolving relationship between states and corporations (1997).

Far from being destructive, some analysts point out that multinational corporations and national governments work hand-in-hand. According to Turner, The relationship between states and corporations is as cooperative as it is adversarial (1997). The multinational corporation is throwing an economic lifeline to struggling nations, at least giving them a chance to increase standards of living and escape poverty. Yes, it is done out of a profit motive for the company. That is the nature of capitalism. As an old adage goes a rising tide lifts all boats.

Do globalization and the huge multinational corporations it spawns threaten the very sovereignty of some nations The question is a difficult one to answer with authority in all instances. Much depends on the nature of the corporations and, more importantly, on the political, cultural and economic situations in each individual country. In certain instances the economic freedom attained by participating in the global economy may enable states to assert even greater sovereignty than they had before.

At its worst, however, the overwhelming presence of multinational corporations can have the opposite effect. Alphonsal and Dhanaseeh write Though globalization is a powerful vehicle for economic growth, it poses threat to economic and social stability, challenges national sovereignty and tradition (Alphonsal and Dhanaseeh, 2003). Once downward trends in sovereignty are established the effects can spread worldwide, feeding upon themselves.

When the recession improves governments might still choose to place trade barriers as an effort to prevent globally influenced recessions of the future. Legal entanglements, crime and monopolistic practices all prevent true competition. It is clear that a completely unregulated business structure is counterproductive, especially for more vulnerable poorer countries. At the same time imposing blanket international standards of business practice is exceedingly difficult.
Multinational corporations are likely to resist such standards. It is the legal, cultural and political differences between countries that multinationals have used to their advantage, making billions of dollars in the process.

Ironically, individual countries are likely to reject international standards, even when the aim is to preserve state autonomy. Third world nations would be faced with the choice of ceding sovereignty either to a world governing body or to multinational corporations. For most the monetary lure of multinational corporations will be too much to resist. The ineffectiveness of past regulatory regimes prompts nations to proceed with caution.

Do multinational corporations alone hurt national sovereignty The answer is neither obvious or easy to determine. There is a certain amount of perspective that must be involved. Potentially, multinational corporations do erode national sovereignty. In a completely unrestrained environment, corporations may choose unethical practices or choose to capitalize on unethical or undemocratic governments. Certain trade structures and regulations can help to preserve sovereignty, but ultimately it comes down to the behavior of individuals.

The presence of multinational corporations, particularly in small, less developed countries, is likely to affect national sovereignty in some regard. The form this effect takes is dependent on many factors. Their presence can have profoundly positive effects, but only when these companies give due consideration to the needs of the host country and its people. To that end there needs to be some form of international regulation in order to ensure that sovereignty is preserved.

Intelligently constructed, with input from all stakeholders, this regulation does not have to be a major barrier to free trade. Multinational corporations are here to stay. They are not inherently damaging to national sovereignty if ethical standards are maintained and a sensible international regulatory structure is installed.

In this article, Mark Brown posed that democratic governance is the key towards sustaining peace in war-torn societies. He posed further that without democratic governance, sustainable development will not be possible regardless of the amount of development assistance received by these societies.
Democratic governance as cited in the article is often associated with accountable and transparent institutions, system of justice that provides for peaceful settlement of disputes, rule of law that protects the rights of all and genuine participation in political decision making, whatever form such participation may take. If a society does not provide for these leading to the absence of capacity to resolve internal conflict, then sustainable peace would not be attained despite the assistance from other countries. In view of this, the United Nations Development Program or UNDP concentrated its efforts to the promotion of democratic governance as it most effective in preventing violent conflict and promoting emotional and social well-being.

It is observed that although the article has provided good examples of programs of the UNDP to promote democratic governance in countries such as Sierra Leone and Afghanistan. Still, these efforts are that of an outsider. It might be good to answer the question of how the people within the afflicted society themselves can work at establishing democracy considering that they are living in a collapsed society. How do they go about in establishing it

Human Security  Protecting and Empowering the People
Sadako Ogata  John Cels

In this article, it was posed that among all security concerns in a State, human security must be the first to be ensured. This means protecting the vital freedoms or the fundamental and inalienable rights of people and empowering individuals or communities to make informed choices and acting on their own behalf central to the priorities of the state. However, it was also posed that human security does not replace state security, human rights and development. On the contrary, it must complement it. This is the human security approach which the Commission on Human Rights has embraced is now actively promoting.

The authors of the article wrote that strategies in protecting human security require collaborative efforts in its development and implementation. In line with this, it was cited that the Commission on Human Rights proposed the development of a human security agenda by mainstreaming human security in the work of global, regional and national security-related organizations. For this, the Commission formulated ten policy recommendations after an analysis of the six broad areas of conflict and poverty. These recommendations are protecting peoples rights and freedoms is a serious challenge in violent conflicts, especially when combined with extreme economic and social deprivations people must be protected from proliferation of weapons people on the move must be protected the responsibility to protect people in conflict should be complemented by a responsibility to rebuild in post-conflict situations markets and trade are basic to economic growth and have led to unprecedented wealth for some a comprehensive approach to ensure livelihoods and work-based security is essential poverty-related health threats, in addition to the HIVAIDS pandemic, are among the most critical and pervasive human securities many of the poorest countries and people are excluded from technological and knowledge-based advances basic education and literacy are important not only to improve productivity and job skills but also to empower people and forming compassionate attitudes and ethical outlooks from a global perspective is central to empowering communities and overcoming divisive messages.

The recommendations of the Commission are very responsive to the human security agenda. I am in agreement with this agenda as I am of the opinion that a State must look into the security of the very backbone of its society which of course refers to the individual members of the State. Simply put, secured and empowered members of the society make up a strong State, thus, achieving state security will be an easy feat.