Political Science

How the executive branches participate in the policy making process

The executive branch of the government is headed by the president at the national level, governors at the state level and mayors at the city level. One of the roles of the executive is to issue orders through the head regarding a policy. It is also the role of the executive to issue legislations and decisions regarding management. The orders and decisions provided by the executive are usually in regards to an issue that may be controversial and one that raises public interest. It is after issuing such orders that the public may be involved in debate and also involve the legislature in a legislative process (Health Policy Guide, 2009). Not only do the executive issue legislations to provoke public debate but it can also do so as an initiation of a new policy initiative. Once a policy has been passed by the legislative branch, it is also the role of the executive branch to sign the bills into law. The executive may also veto a bill such as with an appropriation bill or veto sections of a proposed policy (Wisconsin Association of Lakes, 2009). In essence, the executive formulates policies, adopts policies, implements policies through its departments and evaluates policies.

Role of legislative branches in policy making process

The legislative branch of the government is involved in policy making process through a number of ways. It can be directly involved in the policy making process or influence policy making. The following are some of the ways the legislature takes in policy making process

Consultation- Caramani (2008, p 168) asserts that the legislature is mandated to present an opinion about a specific legislative proposal, general plan of action, or broad policy program. It is however noted that in spite of this role, it is not a must that the opinion given by the legislature will be considered by the executive.

Delay-the legislature can be able to slow down the policy making process. Although this role is viewed as relatively negative, it is very important since it allows for bargaining before a proposal is passed. It is however notable that the legislature may not change the proposal directly although its influence is significant if the other bodies wanted to pass the policy with urgency.

Veto-the legislature is also able to block the passage of policies under the veto power. This role is also viewed as quite negative and it usually does not become effective in many cases unless the other government bodies have a strong interest in changing the existing policy status quo (Caramani, 2008).
Amendment-this is among the positive roles of the legislature in policy making process. Under this role, the legislature is not only able to make changes to a proposal but is also able to initiate policies in line with the presented proposal. As such, the legislature body may make changes to a given proposal so that the policy is inline with the views of the majority.

Initiation-in legislatures like the United States legislatures, the mandate of initiating all proposals lies with the legislature. Groups or individuals within the legislature may initiate the policies. This is therefore among the most powerful roles which as legislative members directly involved in policy making process.  

Role of the judiciary in policy making process
The judicial arm of the government is the court system of the government which is primarily mandated to make rulings whenever disputes arise concerning law interpretation. As a check to the executive and legislative bodies of the government, the judicial system of the government is involved in elaborating policies as well as ensuring that the policies are implemented. The judiciary is not only an implementer of policies that have been made by the executive and the legislature but it also takes the role of agenda-setter, catalyst for policy action by others, policy entrepreneur, and, especially a policymaker (Brisbin, 2004, para 3).

Even as the judicial system is involved in policy making process, there should be no partiality on either branch of the government. This means that the judiciary is mainly involved indirectly in policy making with interpretation of the law concerning various policies being its central role. The role of the judiciary is to always remain impartial while making decisions regarding the policy making process. This is why the judges are elected on a non-partisan ground. Regardless of the opinions of the executive, the legislature or the public judges have the responsibility of making independent decisions and judgments that show the correct interpretation of the law. As such, the court system of the government is an excellent way of putting checks and balances on the executive and the legislative arms (Wisconsin Association of Lakes, 2009).

From the above discussion, it is clear on the roles that each arm of the government has in the policy making process. The ability to have each branch of the government act as a check to the others is of particular importance in policy making such that all policies are in line with public interest.

The  repercussions  of  the  Cold  War  were  not  only  felt  in  the  United  States  and  the  Soviet  Union  alone  but  also  in  several  countries  of  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa.  The  ideological  divide  between  the  United  States  and  the  Soviet  Union  served  as  the  crux  of  the  tension  that  characterized  world  politics  since  the  post  World  War  II  period.  Both  the  countries  sought  to  increase  their  spheres  of  influence  over  several  countries,  especially  countries  of  the  third  world.  This  was  done  through  various  means,  sometimes  through  aid,  sometimes  propaganda  and  diplomacy  and  at  other  times  through  outright  war.  One  such  instance  was  the  Vietnam  war.  In  order  to  arrest  and  put  an  end  to  the  spread  of  communism  which  had  already  taken  root  in  Vietnam,  the  United  States  chose  to  go  to  war.  Opposition  to  communism  was,  at  that  point  of  time  declared  to  be  one  of  the  primary  foreign  policy  objectives  of  the  United  States,  as  claimed  by  the  then  Secretary  of  State,  John  Foster  Dulles.  The  policies  followed  by  the  United  States  in  its  campaign  against  communist  forces  gradually  succeeded  in  attracting  the  objection  of  the  world  at  large  and  even  the  U.S public  opinion.  Massive  bombing  of  Vietnam,  the  massacre  of  war,  especially  Mai  Lai  was  strongly  condemned  and  the  US  ultimately  had  to  pull  out  of  Vietnam  in  the  face  of  rising  opposition  to  its  policies  both  at  home  and  abroad.  Defeat  in  the  Vietnam  war  had  several  consequences  for  the  US.  Firstly,  they  realized  that  violence  cannot  be  used  a  policy  to  defeat  an  ideology  where  the  innocent  people  of  a  nation  became  the  worst  victims,  secondly,  it  was  a  moral  victory  for  the  Soviet  Union  and  thirdly,  popular  opinion  proved  its  power.
       
Guerrilla  warfare  refers  to  a  specific  method  of  combat  in  which  the  insurgents  use  military  tactics  against  a  force  or  as  in  most  cases  the  established  political  regime  in  a  state,  in a  clandestine  manner  such  as  sudden  surprise  attacks.  They  so  not  fight  in  a  concerted  way  and  therefore  do  not  comprise  an  official  body  of  combat.  The  crux  of  guerrilla  warfare is  the  fact  that  guerrilla  warfare  is  dependent  on  ambushes   and  sudden  attacks,  which  are  in  a  manner  of  saying,  their  trump  cards.  Guerrillas  are  able  to  successfully  orchestrate  such  attacks  by  being  extremely  familiar  and  well-versed  with  the  terrain  of  the  region  they  operate  in.  the  Vietcong,  during  the  Vietnam  war  used  guerrilla  tactics  successfully.  In  most  cases,  guerrillas  are  a  force  that  lie  outside  the  state  machinery.  Guerrilla  warfare  thus  relies  on  accurate  information  about  the  enemy s  whereabouts  including  information,  strategic  and  geographical  knowledge  and  precise  co-ordination  and  implementation  of  combat  action.
       
Any  particular  war  cannot  be  termed  as  immoral  because  all  wars  are.  The  immorality  of  war  is  obvious  from  an  ethical  and  humanitarian  standpoint  but  from  the  perspective  of  realism  and  pragmatic  considerations,  it  remains  unavoidable.  The  only  possible  solution  therefore  is  to  refrain  from  violence  against  civilian  population  and  also  excessive  use  of  violence.

The current conflicts and the Vietnam (Second IndoChina) War share many important aspects and media comparison of the two historical occurences is not only logical, but also unavoidable and well-founded.

A prominent aspect which characterized both conflicts was justification for the wars. While critics to the US-inspired conflicts have argued that the US could have avoided these conflicts, the US spent time and effort trying to convince Americans, and the world, that they would remain under the threat of the enemies unless the US intervened militarily (Pike, 1970). In Vietnam, the US attacked North Vietnamese Communists under the guise of forestalling the fall of Saigon, then under attack from North Korea. To justify the current conflicts, the US has again made attempts to convince the world that global security was threatened by the presence of terrorists and unless her troops attacked the terrorist bases, the world would remain unsafe. It is telling that manipulated information and outright falsehoods, and propaganda were used to persuade Americans, and the world, to support the good forces (Carter, 2008 Milne, 2008 Stahl, 2009)

Comparisons between the Vietnam war and the ongoing conflicts can also be informed on the fact the invaders (the US with support from friendly nations) were in such a haste to launch their military offensives that they did not have enough time to assess their weaknesses and the strength of their seemingly inferior enemies. In Vietnam as in the ongoing conflicts, the invaders prepared for conventional war and trusted their superior firepower to earn them victory against the enemies. Their enemies however preferred non-conventional combat tactics, surprising the militarily superior invaders. The Communist Vietnamese, like the Islamic combatants in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan avoid direct confrontations with the occupying forces, choosing to hit occasionally and unpredictably, and occasioning heavy damage on the occupying forces.

Dwight David Eisenhower was the 34th American president. Having served in the military prior to his presidency, Eisenhower is reputed for governing the country from behind the scenes. His legacy applauds his work towards enhancing social security and the improvements of workers wages. His presidency was peaceful and he sought to implement policies which would benefit the countrys economy and not those which would jeopardize it. It was in 1961 during his farewell ceremony when he delivered the speech which referred to the military industry complex.

The military industry complex is a phrase which refers to the relationship which exists among parties which are charged with duty of managing wars. In essence, this relationship is amongst the military, the congress, presidential administration and those companies and organizations relied on for the supply of weapons and war equipments. Eisenhower asserts that we must guard against the acquisition of warranted influence (p.3) in order to caution Americans of the negative effects which may arise from the military industrial complex. An overfriendly relationship between government forces and defense contractors may lead to the fostering of war. In such a scenario all parties would be working towards achieving certain benefits from this relationship. That is it could facilitate for a war for profit. Eisenhower noted that despite the countrys military development it may lead to their influence on the war and not the promotion of peace or the maintenance of democracy in the world.

The war on Iraq was implemented on false and unwarranted influences. Utley (2009) explains that most leaders in America are influenced by the perception of using the countrys military power for their own benefits. Apart from anticipating personal benefits, both democrats and republicans are motivated to support the war on Iraq because they foresee great monetary profits from the war. Quite evidently, Americas military capacities are being used to fuel war to the benefit and special interests of those leaders involved with the defense policies implementation. As the government continues to fund the military, there has been a generation of many opportunities for legislators. Following this, overspending continues even with the previously experienced financial crisis.

Amongst the ten points detailed by Utley (2009), one argument which provides a sound solution for the military industrial complex is the insistence on the inability of democracy, freedom and compatibility to coexist with unending war and empire. By cooperating and establishing a common ground on what is best for the prosperity of all Americans, both the left and right will provide a firm foundation for the elimination of the military industrial complex. These leaders are highly influential and if they were to root for an effective management policy of military operations, the rest of the country is bound to offer their support. However, not unless Americans understand how the continuing war is impeding their democracy and peace endeavors they will not overcome this problem.

The suggestion to recognize that Americans are entertained by war is a disagreeable claim which does not help in the fight against military industrial complex. Americans might find the military technologies appealing but they are also aware of the devastating effects of the war. This goes to show that they must acknowledge that this problem is gravely embedded in the countrys politics and agendas. Therefore, a solution should be one which aims at uprooting the cause of the military industrial complex. All citizens must be included in the reform process and solutions be focused on regaining the prosperity of the nation. Furthermore, there are Americans who are disheartened by the devastating aftermaths of wars and they are ready to make a difference in this fight.

According to Bilmes and Stiglitz (2008), the Iraq war has been the most costly. It is not only more than the total costs of the Vietnam War but it also exceeds more than double the Korean Wars costs. Even though most of the economic costs are hidden, they are also ultimately high. Americans may not directly feel this impact but it will be felt in the future.  In every month the war on Iraq accrued more than 4.4 billion in the year 2003. On the other hand, both the Afghanistan and Iraq wars accrued a total of 16 billion in costs per month. Under regular circumstances and without the expenditure on the wars, the department of defense spends 500 billion per year.

The military industrial complex falls under the principle which dictates that realism takes on the assumption that interest described as power is an objective category. Even though this is so, its meaning is not fixed at a particular time. Power indeed becomes the control of man over others. The concept of interest is at the focal point of the military industrial complex and despite the factors of time and place, it remains unaffected. These interests have continued to strengthen the bond which exists amongst the parties involved in the military industrial complex. Legislators, administration and the war equipment industry continue to fuel the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.

This principle further implies that the actions which have been instigated by the military industrial complex are dependent on the political context within which this agenda has been constructed. This also applies to the concept of power. It is the power which emanates from the military industrial complex which has resulted to unending wars, just as long as America is capable of bringing other countries to their knees. It is then that power becomes untamed and the nations laws are used as justification for the actions taken. However, it is only through the balance and control of power and interests that stability can be achieved. The military industrial complex will only be resolved when the countrys foreign policies are founded on the overall interests of the well being of America. As long as it continues to be used to satisfy particular interests, the military industrial complex will persist.

Vladimir Lenin who was an imperialist would not be surprised by the present and dominating military industrial complex. However, he was completely opposed to the belief that militarism was a normal component of government policies. In his perception, the military industrial complex expresses this component by the creation of a disproportionate significance to the issue of military preparedness. This is a factor which is currently being observed in the nation. Massive funds are being used to equip the military while in the process other funds find themselves in the pockets of individuals. Lenin was of the perception that militarism was closely linked to monopoly capitalism. It is when the basics conventions of capitalism are extremely aggravated that militarism assumes unmatched measures.

With the growth and emergence of America as a monopoly capitalist there is an ensuing struggle for power and domination of other nations. This has made the aspect of military industrial complex rejuvenated as the military becomes a basic tool for acquiring power over others. This intense vestment on militarism and its effect on the social lives of Americans have met the requirements for those monopolies which strive to amass power and new markets and share the vast capital investments. In addition the growth of such capitalist monopolies is largely advanced by arms corporations. They may have an interest in the results of wars and are at the same time interested with the material benefits and profits which are accrued from war preparations and heightening of international tension.

Even though President Bush inherited a massive budget surplus from the former administration the 2008 budget reported an outstanding and never seen before deficit. During his presidency the national debt increased tremendously and there are still far more estimated future costs. The deficit change is credited to various components which are inclusive of incompetence, special interests, ideologies, populist politics and bad economies (Stiglitz, 2008). Bushs administration tended to underestimate the restrictions of the financial markets. Following this, markets were left unregulated and the idea that regulation would be carried out after market restoration was made. The financial markets continued to create more dire risks for the economy through their incapacity to allocate savings and control risks. This lack of market regulation accounted for the financial crisis.

Financial market deregulation refers to the lack of regulation based on the ideologies that there is no need to monitor financial markets. As such, the government makes no efforts to supervise and adequately regulate the financial markets. This ideology entrusts the regulation responsibility to financial markets with the belief that they know best. Alternatively, this is known as self regulation. In addition, there is an illusionary perception that markets can be independent of any regulatory measures and still have the capacity for self regulation.

Both self regulation and deregulation can be credited for the financial crisis although there are other underlying factors. These two factors led to increased risks which were facilitated by financial markets. The desire for great risks could not be averted because there were no strict regulations governing the financial markets. There are several regulatory failures which contributed to the financial crisis. The financial deregulation associated with mortgages is an example of the effects of the looming financial crisis. While there was a change of the institutions which held mortgages, there were no guidelines of regulatory measures put to account for any misdemeanors. As a result, no one was aware or even interested in the irregularities involved in the allocation of loans. Eventually the crisis hit when the housing conflict became elevated. Another failure is the fact that there were no controls put on predatory lenders. The financial deregulation allowed lenders to dupe borrowers into taking up loans under conditions they could not fulfill. Inevitably, the foreclosures occurred at a rapid rate. This situation may have been salvaged if there had been effective regulation policies.

There also existed a failure for the regulation of the countrys trade deficits. With the nation already operating in large budget deficits most sectors were operating under cheap credit. This could have been attributed to high influx rates of capital from China. These inconsistencies could have been prevented if there were regulations. It is clearly evident that the financial crisis was not as a result of the collapse of the financial market systems but because of deregulation. Financial investors and other stakeholders engaged in speculations which influenced the financial markets negatively. This is because these speculations were extreme and not based on substantive reasoning which eventually amounted to unavoidable and detrimental risks.

It is indeed true that corporations and the wealthy are exposed to better tax rates than the rest of American citizens. This is facilitated by the free market illusion which predicted that allowing tax breaks for the wealthy would amount to larger savings. This has often proved to be wrong as the rates continue to decline, yet the wealthy keep getting wealthier. This claim by (Stiglitz, 2008) is supported by the institute for policy analysis report. According to Cavanaugh et al (2009), the wealthiest corporations in 2006 amassed an average of 263.3 million each yet paid only 17.2 in taxes. On the other hand, the top taxpayers who are the middle income earners managed to accrue 1.3 million and had to pay 22.79  in income taxes. The discrepancy between these two groups is quite distinct and an identifiable gap can be observed between the rich and other citizens. Furthermore, those households which gained over 2million only paid 23.21 in taxes as compared to the same in 1955.

An increase in the tax rates of wealthy Americans would improve the economy. Like previously illustrated, these wealthy corporations manage to generate the greatest incomes yet they pay lower taxes. Cavanaugh et al (2009) estimates that if these wealthy Americans were to pay the same amounts of taxes or even more they would generate so much more in tax revenues. For instance, if the taxpayers earning over 2million incomes were to pay taxes at the higher rates of 1955 there would have been additional revenue amounting to over 200 billion. Therefore if those who have great capacities to pay for revenue are subjected to higher taxes, they would contribute to raising the revenue needed for the growth of the economy. The reversal of tax breaks for high income households would attribute to surmountable increase revenue rates. Furthermore, the creation of additional tax brackets for the wealthy which range over 50 tax rates on their incomes may eventually generate more revenue.

However, this responsibility should not be wholly subjected to the rich. Other solutions must be incorporated in order to achieve economic prosperity. Such factors to be considered include the establishment of firm policies and systems meant to create a strong overall economy. Also, tax laws should be transparent, fair and simple in implementation. Lastly, regulation policies must be put in place in order to reduce risks and aid in economy building. This would prevent speculative tendencies in the financial markets thus averting any ensuing economic crisis.

Stilglitz and the Institute of Policy studies do offer reliable information on the wealth distribution of Americans. This can be verified through the study of other financial public reports which can be accessed in public libraries and databases. Furthermore there are various research studies which reflect on the same outcomes of wealth distribution. It is also possible to gain access to tax reports from the finance department through requests and a study of past tax reports will reflect the details given by both Stilglitz and the Institute of Policy studies.

According to Wolf, workers productivity increased rapidly between 1820-1890. At that time America was a remarkable capitalist and production per worker grew every year followed by an increase in workers wages. This was such an exceptional time for the country as there was no working class in Americas history which had achieved such high production rates. This increased productivity is a trend which has persisted to the present as it has been facilitated by advanced training and technology.

However, it was in the 1970s that the wages stopped reflecting the same upward trend. Instead wages has been on the decline since 1970 to the present. This change was attributed to various factors including the fact that America was facing great competition from other countries on the production of goods. Initially it enjoyed a monopoly after the Second World War when other countries were rebuilding but this died out when they recovered. Also there was the computerization of most workers transactions which made them unnecessary.

Productivity continues to be plummeting highly while wages are on the decline. When the wages stagnate and at the same time there is high productivity the outcome is increased profits for both employers and shareholders. It becomes plausible that investments are bound to accrue profits than working.

It is true that capitalism exposes individuals to measurements on the basis of consumption. When the country could not afford to consume more due to the low wages Americans resulted to various strategies which contributed extensively to the financial crisis. These strategies included the upsurge of employers wages, increased working hours and borrowing. Financial institutions saw an opening for the amassing of more wealth and they resulted to providing loans for workers in order to accommodate their consumption. This explains why consumption continued even after the decline of workers wages. At the end these financial institutions expected great interests from these loans. It is then that these financial institutions especially banks became facilitators of the financial crisis. They started created collateral for mortgages and this later amounted to the housing crisis. Homes were being foreclosed and most banks experiencing great losses.

The countrys deficits were also attributed to the borrowing trends which followed the decline in consumption rates. China had lent the country a lot of money which was used in funding the mortgage and treasury securities. The influx of capital from China resulted to the cheap credit and eventual declines of interest rates. The boom which saw workers work more and increased borrowing reached its limits when the financial crisis hit. Workers could no longer continue with their frenzied work schedules and the country was already in great debt. Even though there are other contributing factors to the emergence of the financial crisis banks and most financial institutions are also to blame.

The economic crisis clearly indicates that the system of capitalism is greatly flawed. Poor policy decisions might have aggravated the crisis but they never would have interfered with the structure of capitalism. A capitalism system has at the top directors who are elected by various shareholders. Their role is to ensure the growth of profits and they are answerable to their shareholders. Regulations are put in place in order to control and supervise their activities. In essence when there are no strict regulation policies, the people left in charge end up evading the regulations by benefiting from the workers wages. This implies that despite the regulation measurements put by capitalism systems there will still be others who have incentives to circumvent the existing policies. Furthermore, capitalism is firmly grounded on the acquisition of immense power and domination over others. Special interests are bound to over crowd the mindsets of figures in authority to the detriment of those under their command.

The workplace is not the simple unit today that it once was. Previously, people were looking for simpler things out of their jobs, had simpler expectations and demanded lesser from their work than they now do. Todays employees are not as content. The dynamic environment of the workplace and the dynamism in their personal lives has led them to need, expect and demand much more from their jobs than they once did. The higher level of expectations makes it herder for organizations to meet these demands as effectively, making dissatisfaction a more eminent threat than in the past.
The two broad categories of organizations today- for-profits and non-profits- respond to this threat in different ways. The relatively unconstrained budget of the for-profits allows them to lure employees to achieving higher results with promises of monetary rewards and benefits. Hindered by their budgetary constraints, non-profits need to find relatively low-cost ways of motivating their employees and sustaining them at the same levels of performance as is desired for meeting organizational goals.

Literature Review
Motivation
Motivation is defined as the processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal (HYPERLINK httpwww.amazon.comsrefrdr_ext_aut_encodingUTF8indexbooksfield-authorJohn20R.20SchermerhornSchermerhorn  Hunt, 2008).

On analyzing the definition, we find that intensity is concerned with the depth of a persons efforts. It measures how hard a person tries at an individual level to meet organizational or individual goals. This is the element which is usually emphasized the most in the process of analyzing and measuring motivation. In most organizations, the focus is placed expressly on this factor when they talk about motivation. However, it is not necessary that the performance outcomes will be favorable for the organization just because of high intensity of efforts the efforts need to be directed in such a way that benefits the organization. This means that the quality of efforts has to be taken into consideration just as carefully as the intensity. Organizations should be seeking employee efforts that are not only directed toward benefiting the organization, but are also consistent with organizational goals at the same time. 4Finally, motivation also has an element of persistence to it. This is a measure of how long a person can maintain his or her level of effort. Individuals who are motivated stay with a task and maintain a consistent level of effort until the task is completed.

Motivation can be greatly affected due to the varying situations that the individual is exposed to. In the process of analyzing the concept of motivation, it is important to keep in mind that the level of motivation varies both between individuals and within individuals, depending on the situation. This difference is dependant on the ongoing situation at the time, and varies accordingly with varying circumstances. Different individuals may need different stimuli to motivate them. This need of difference in the stimuli is due to the varying personalities of individuals. However, the same rule may apply to a single person if he or she needs to be motivated in different situations this scenario will call for a difference in the motivating factors just as surely as employees personalities affect the ways in which they need to be motivated.

Factors of Motivation
Intrinsic motivation is that which stems from performing the work itself. It is related to a persons inner satisfaction that results from completing the task. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is that which stems from rewards granted by the organization. Intrinsic factors of motivation are a lot more powerful than extrinsic factors of motivation it is the difference between wanting to do something because it matters to you, and having to do it because it matters to someone else (Bohlander  Snell, 2009).

Theories of Motivation
These theories of motivation have been divided into two broad categories

Early theories of motivation
Contemporary theories of motivation
According to HYPERLINK httpwww.amazon.comsrefrdr_ext_aut_encodingUTF8indexbooksfield-authorJohn20R.20SchermerhornSchermerhorn  Hunt (2008), the early theories of motivation represent a foundation from which the contemporary theories of motivation originated and grew. Although these theories have been heavily questioned and their validity is dubious, they are still depended upon as explaining employee motivation in the best way, and are in fact still in use by managers in many organizations to explain employee motivation.

Below are a few theories of motivation which will be used as a basis for explaining how non-profit employees can be motivated in an organization.

Hierarchy Of Needs Theory
This theory was developed by Abraham Maslow. It is one of the most well known theories of motivation. The hypothesis underlying this theory is that that every human being has five needs present in his or herself that are arranged in a defined hierarchy. These needs are (HYPERLINK httpwww.amazon.comsrefrdr_ext_aut_encodingUTF8indexbooksfield-authorJohn20R.20SchermerhornSchermerhorn  Hunt, 2008)

Physiological this need primarily consists of bodily needs of a human being. Examples include hunger, thirst, shelter, etc.

Safety this need applies to both physical and psychological threats and dangers.

Social is the need to be accepted by society and fit in as an equal.

Esteem this need stems from within a person himself, but consists of both internal and external factors, examples including status, self respect, etc.

Self-actualization this is a need to achieve the position that an individual is capable of.

McClellands Theory Of Needs
This theory was developed by David McClelland and his associates. The theory focuses on three needs, which are as follows

Need for achievement (nAch) this is the drive to succeed in an individual. It involves the need to achieve up to par with a set of standards with which you performance is being compared, or to strive to excel in general.

Need for power (nPow) it is the need to influence in others such a behavior that they would not exhibit otherwise.

Need for affiliation (nAff) it is the need of a person to have closely knit relationships with their social acquaintances.

Motivating and Sustaining Non-Profit Employees
In non-profit organizations, the employees are driven by much more than monetary gain. Non-profit organizations cannot lure employees in with monetary perks as is the case with for-profits, nor can they motivate employees to work harder and increase productivity through monetary perks, cash benefits or paid vacations and leaves. These employees are much more likely to be motivated due to intrinsic factors than they are likely to see an opportunity for motivation in extrinsic motivating factors.
For non-profit employees, organizations need to focus mostly on the intrinsic factors that motivate individuals. The word non-profit naturally implies that extrinsic factors of motivation will not be as helpful in achieving the desired results where it concerns non-profit employees. According to Bohlander  Snell (2009), when rewards and punishments are used as extrinsic factors of motivation, they usually result in only short term motivation, and accordingly, short term results. If an organization understands the psychological principles which are fueling employee motivation, however, and find effective ways to connect these principles to the relative business goals, individuals can be raised to much higher levels of performance than is usually thought possible. Also, connecting the underlying motivating factors with performance and, ultimately, results makes it possible for the organization to sustain the high level of performance over a longer term period.

Taking the perspective of the theories of motivation described before, a non-profit employee will be more inclined towards fulfilling his self actualization and esteem needs than the others. The drive to fulfill basic needs will be there, but the employee in question will be more concerned with the part that he can play in achieving the task at hand, rather than the material rewards he or she hopes to receive upon completing the task. According to McClellands theory of needs, a non-profit employee will be more concerned with fulfilling the need for achievement more than other of the three needs mentioned in the theory.

Some Essential Principles
In order to motivate and sustain non-profit employees, it is important that organizations should keep in mind some essential principles that guide employee motivation. Although these principles are very basic, they are the very foundation of how the desired level of motivation can be achieved for non-profit employees and how the achieved level can be sustained over a longer period of time.

Motivation Starts from the Top
The manager in charge of the motivation program needs to understand that enthusiasm is contagious if he or she is stressed out himherself, the subordinates are more likely to catch on to the depressed mood than they are to be inspired by the motivating efforts the manager is trying to implement. A good starting point in learning about motivation is for the manager to understand what their own motivators are. In order to motivate employees, it is important to understand what motivates them if the manager already has a clear idea about what his or her own motivators are, it is easier to find concrete clues to what might the driving forces be behind employees motivation.

Alignment of Employee Goals with Organizational Goals
As per the essence of motivation, employee efforts should be consistent with and directed toward achieving organizational goals. Employee performance levels can be high, but if they do not contribute to the goals of the organization, they will prove to be totally unworthy to the organization. Therefore, it is crucial that managers know what they want from their employees, and how the employees can be made to achieve these goals. Therefore, when designing motivation programs, it is important for the organization to ensure that employees have strong input in identifying what their goals are, so that it is easier for them to be able to achieve them effectively. However, it must be ensured that this input does not undermine the alignment of the said goals with organizational goals.

Understanding Individual Motivators
As mentioned before, motivation differs between individuals as well as within individuals, depending on the variety of situations that the individual is exposed to. This is a pivotal factor when designing motivation programs. Organizations should incorporate individual motivating factors of employees into the whole motivation program framework on a priority basis. According to Bohlander  Snell (2009), these motivators can be found out by asking the employees, listening to them and observing them in the natural work environment.

Sustainability of Employee Motivation as a Dynamic Process
Non-profit organizations need to understand that the workplace is dynamic. It is a known and well established fact that neither the organization nor its workforce can be expected to be static over any period of time. Therefore, it is important to design motivation programs that are viable to survive through the dynamics of the workplace. This can be achieved through creating as well as sustaining an environment where each employee is capable of motivating themselves effectively. If developing and sustaining employee motivation is seen as an ongoing process, the results will ultimately be more fruitful.

Sustainability of Employee Motivation through Organizational Systems
Employee motivation can be greatly enhanced by developing and cultivating strong relationships between management and the workforce however, they cannot be sustained as effectively through the same method. The nature of these relationships between the management and employees can vary greatly in differing situations, which can take its toll on employee morale. Reliable and comprehensive organizational systems to help motivate employees can do a better job in this regard. Putting in place such systems induces clarity and effectiveness in the motivation process, and ensures sustainability throughout. Also, establishing such systems ensures clarity of understanding and equitable treatment of employees.

Motivation through Perks
A non-profit employee may not be offered a salary which is highly competitive with the marketplace also, the benefits may not be as robust as they are in for-profit organizations, but one of the most effective ways that a non-profit organization can motivate its employees is by offering low-cost job perks. Some of the ways in which organizations can motivate non-profit employees are

Free Membership
A membership perk is one of the easiest and most effective ways to ensure the goodwill of a non-profit employee. Member organizations can chip in with providing employees with free membership or reduce membership fee to considerably lower rates, along with providing reduced membership fee offers for families of the employees. Since an organizations employees are its biggest ambassadors, a fact which is especially true and handy in the case of non-profits, it proves to be effective for such organizations to secure their employees goodwill.

Paid Training
One of the biggest motivators for non-profit employees is the opportunity to learn. This can easily be used as a motivator by organizations if it is offered as a job perk. In depth training at job site gives non-profit employees the chance to gain more knowledge about a particular subject matter. Also, perks such as continuing education credits will also prove to be effective motivators and will help sustain the employees as well as increase the level of performance. These measures will ensure employee motivation along with the fact that the non-profit employees are knowledgeable enough to effectively achieve organizational goals.

Program Discounts
Non-profit employees should have an edge above others by being offered reduced rates for special classes or events being held by the organization. An additional benefit can be offered in the way that non-profits are allowed to sign up or register for special events before anyone else.

Merchandise Discount
This motivating factor can work two ways for the organization not only does it increase employee morale, it also increases the organizations recognition in the community or society that it operates in. Not-for-profit organizations that sell merchandise can offer employees a discount. This job perk can work as an advertising technique for the organization in question, as well as boost employee motivation and loyalty towards the organization.

Food Discount
Non-profit organizations having cafeterias or snack carts can offer discounts to employees. If an on-site cafeteria facility is not available, organizations can establish a contract with a local restaurant for providing a decided percentage-discount on the total price to non-profit employees wearing an employee badge proving their service with the organization.

FreeReduced Parking Rates
This factor can prove to be more than just a job perk it can be perceived as highly valuable by non-profit employees due to its element of making the job affordable for employees and reducing personal frustration. Even if free parking is not available at the organization site, a parking subsidy to non-profit employees will be more than up to par in doing the job. This subsidy can be offered by discharging the cost directly or arranging parking discounts through third party parking lots.

Subsidized Mass Transit
Non-profit organizations can join an existing employer discount program for offering discounted transit fee to its employees. If an employer discount program does not exist, the organization can pay a portion of the monthly transit cost of the employees itself.

Credit Union Membership
Non-profits can engage their employees into a credit union membership. Credit unions tend to offer better interest rates than commercial banks, but this condition applies only to qualifying members. Non-profit employees can be facilitated to join by their organizations if the organization approaches credit unions on the behalf of its workforce to see if they ca expand their program to its employees and their families.

Conclusion
Non-profits are usually organizations that are established with the purpose of doing good for the community. With a purpose of community well-being in mind, it is important for the non-profit employees to stay enthused about their jobs so that they can deliver their promise to the society effectively. However, these employees are just as liable to dissatisfaction at or due to the workplace as any other workforce of other organizations. Due to their budgetary constraints, non-profits cannot afford monetary perks to motivate employees as other organizations, such as MNCs, can afford to do. Non-profit employees, however, can be compensated for the absence of major monetary benefits in other ways. Not-for-profit organizations can contribute to employee motivation in ways that make he job experience more interesting for the employees, thereby making their lives easier while working at the particular organization in question. Food discounts, merchandise discounts, credit union memberships, program discounts and most importantly, satisfying the employees need for knowledge by providing them the opportunity to learn are some of the factors the non-profits can use in order to keep up their morale and sustain their performance levels to meet organizational goals. It is important to for these organizations to keep in mind that alignment of employee goals and performance with organizational goals is vital for the organization, especially in the case of non-profits where the outcome of the organizational decisions mostly concerns the community at large. Motivation programs should incorporate individual goals so that employees feel a personal responsibility to achieve them as effectively as possible, and such programs should be designed under a uniform and systematic organizational structure while keeping in mind individual motivating factors of the workforce.

As the world is racing to discover new ways to find replacements for the rapidly diminishing stores of fossil fuels,  many have gone into the avenue of looking for the solution via the route of renewable energy. This took on the form of nuclear, biomass, wind, solar, hydro and other innovative, but still untested, means of providing fuel and power for the globally hungry markets for fuel. But there is still one area that the world hopes to find the answer in the fossil fuel area, the Athabaskan tar sand fields in Canada. Whether it is good or bad, the paper seeks to discover whether they are harvesting garbage or gold.

Tar sands Oil or environmental poison
When Charles Mair, the Protestant theologian, fur trader and Canadian nationalist coined the archaic term of Canada First, Mair saw the global upswing in the Fort McMurray area long before the traders and other journeymen saw it. He viewed the area as an inhospitable area given over to barbaric Native American inhabitants and a perpetual cover of frost.  As one of the commissioners in the governments Treaty of Eight body, Mair saw the interest that the government had in the inhospitable region. In a report released by the government in the late 1800s, a report dealing with the regions tar sands called them as the most extensive petroleum field in America, and even went to the extent that the fields will rank among the crown jewels of the Crown. In the report, the area must be declared under the disposition of the Canadian people for their economic benefit (Andrew Nikiforuk, 2008).

As Mair arrived at McMurray, he saw the potential for the grandiose future that the area held for the future of the Canadian nation until he reached that area, all with the tar sands in question, concocting such terms from renowned explorer Alexander Mackenzie, describing the area as bituminous fountains and the ooze  from Federal botany specialist John Macoun  century later.  The tar, oil to some, was observed to be everywhere, escaping from cracks in the cliffs that lent the smell of an old ship in the description of Mair. In Mairs narrative, Through the Mackenzie Basin, he (Mair) averred that the development of what he calls as one of the great natural wonders of northern Canada will result in immense economic benefit for the country (Nikiforuk, 2008).

And the prophecy of Mairs statement has seemingly come to pass. Interest in the oil-bearing sands, or tar bearing sands, has spread beyond the borders of the North American continent, with countries such as China, Saudi Arabia, France and Norway expressing interest to put up investments in the area, as the development of the area, according to statements of the Canadian government, will eventually resolve the dearth of oil needed to power the worlds economies.  The catalyst of this great metamorphosis of the Canadian economy is called bitumen, which former Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper, himself a son of an oil magnate, calls an ocean of oil soaked sand. This insentient form of oil is now the main driver of the Canadian economy that the old fur trade once held sway over the economy a century back (Nikiforuk, 2008).

Formed by millions of years of cooking, the forces that shaped the region began to cook the remains of hundred million year old flora and fauna, then digested the rest of the carcasses with the action of bacteria. If the cooking was good, the result would be light crude if the cooking was not good, the result would be the tar in the sands. As a result, the increased economic activity of the Canadian economy was anchored on a fuel that was cooked about halfway between raw and medium based on the remains of dinosaurs and plants. Many in the oil sector have an aversion to the term tar, calling it a term of environmentalists. As such, they would rather term oil, as the term connotes cleanliness, abundance and accessibility (Nikiforuk, 2008).

Apart from the terminology semantics, tar does not sound like a term for pouring in investments, and does not assure the public of the anxiety of the increasing prices of fossil fuels. In their opinion, or spin, Canada is not mining a dirty substance or even refining the same it is in the conduct of producing oil. They even describe that technically, oil is what this substance should be called, since what is harvested from this activity is technically oil, expensive and low quality at that. Bitumen is highly pollutive, containing more carbon than an equivalent amount of light crude (Nikiforuk, 2008).

In the past discussion, we have seen the reasonings that the mining of the tar sands, though pollutive, continues to ride the mantra of being beneficial for the Canadian economy on the whole. What with many countries and companies looking to share in the pie of the global oil reserves, why do many state that the mining of the dirty oil is as close to reprehensible as can be Shouldnt something that would contribute billions, if not hundreds of billions of petrol dollars, into the economy should be considered good Here is where the argument of the author takes a turn to state that the mining of the tar sands is more deleterious than beneficial.

Unlike the black gold that is drilled and refined from oil producing nations such as Saudi Arabia, the mining of the bitumen in the tar sands of Athabasca cant be pumped out of the ground, taking nearly seven decades and billions of tax dollars paid by Canadians, trying to figure out a means by which to get to the bitumen in the sands. The final solution they arrived at was to destroy anything on top of the bitumen to harvest the oil. In short, destroy the environment to get to the gold. As currently practiced in mining the oil, the tar in the sand is mined by shallow mining with the use of gargantuan trucks and electric shovels that scrape the tar bearing sands. The other is open pit mining, which fells hundreds of trees, drain the wetlands and tear up four tons of earth to get two tons of bitumen (Nikiforuk, 2008).

At 100,000 a barrel, the bitumen from the Athabasca tar sands field can be considered as the worlds most expensive oil. Apart from scraping and digging for the tar, melting the bitumen is also another means of mining the rock hard substance from the ground. In the process of steam assisted gravity drainage, or SAGD, stem is coursed through the block of bitumen and the melted mass is pumped out of the ground using a complicated system of pipes, pumps, and wells. But the process leaves a huge environmental footprint when in operation (Nikiforuk, 2008).

A SAGD operation will leave roughly 7 percent of the land permanently scarred for hosting wildlife. In the 2008 report of the Cumulative Environmental Management Association, the practice of SAGD in its present form, will displace caribou, fish, bear and moose from an area of roughly one to three million acres. Also, SAGD uses enormous amount of another fossil fuel based energy source, natural gas, so much so that the amount of natural gas used in boiling the water for the steam component of SAGD is enough to power four million homes on the North American for a day. That would mean the amount of work needed to create a barrel of the poor mans oil would be more than the amount of work needed to create a barrel of light crude, yet would render less energy in the process (Nikiforuk, 2008).  

But does the fact that the Athabasca tar sands will yield an immense amount of oil the only reason that the Canadian government turn a blind eye to the environmental havoc that the activity of tar sand mining Sadly, this is not the only primary driver. Rising American demand for oil, and the report o the National Oil Sands Task Force, instead of regulating the use of the area, came up with a report, The Oil Sands A New Energy Vision, promoted the tar sands field as one of the biggest arenas for private sector investment in the service of the public of Western Canada (Nikiforuk, 2008).

On this note is where we can discuss the primary drivers of the surge in the corporate and Federal activity in the Athabasca region. While it was recognized that the conduct of mining the tar from the sands will render irreparable damage to the ecosystem in the region, industry players, mesmerized at the potential in making a killing on their investments, have pressured the government into looking the other way so that the environment of Canada can be destroyed, all in the name of finding another means to pollute the environment. For the government, it was a way to cash in on a natural resource that was inadvertently placed in a region that was teeming with wildlife. But though the book does make a case for the abhorrent mining of the tar in the sands, it does not say anything about remediation on the damaged lands. Probably, the author left this vital piece of information out because there was no means to bring back the land to what it once was and leaving it look like a scene from a nuclear holocaust.

Intelligent brains in the fields of economics have always suggested that it is prudent not to create differences between the residents of various parts of the world by protectionist policies, thus treating the entire world as a common global hub which in turn is beneficial to every member of this common hub.   There have been multiple theories which suggest that by eliminating trade barriers, we are creating a world in which every country will develop an expertise in one field or other and thus the gross produce for the entire world will be greater than normal. Making the entire world barrier free is not a pragmatic solution and thus trade agreements like NAFTA, SAFTA, ASEAN etc give motivation to the participating countries when they realize the benefits and non participating countries when they observe the difference in economy from the participating nations in order to make the world barrier free.

While presenting our case in favor of agreements like NAFTA, which are crucial for the development of the economy of the world at large, we put forward David Ricardos policy of comparative costs where Ricardo deducted that the Gross product in terms of the quantity for the entire world will be higher in the case of free trade. We consider a hypothetical case in which China can produce both wheat and rice more cheaply than France (ie it has an absolute advantage in both commodities). What David Ricardo suggested was that it still would be mutually beneficial for both countries to develop an expertise and trade.

Table 1
CountryWheatRice Cost Per Unit In Man HoursCost Per Unit In Man HoursFrance1530China1015
In Table 1, in France with same number of men deployed, two units of wheat could be produced for every unit of Rice. This means that production of every unit of rice, results in the decline of production in the wheat by two units (i.e. the opportunity cost of a unit of rice is 2 units of wheat). In China, this ratio is 23, much better than 12 in the case of France. That is the opportunity cost of a unit of rice is 1.5 units of wheat in China. Now since the relative cost or the comparative costs differ therefore it is mutually beneficial for the two countries to engage in trading activities even though China has an absolute advantage in both commodities.

Since, China is relatively better at producing rice than wheat therefore China is said to have a COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE in the production of rice. France is relatively better at producing wheat than rice so France is said to have a comparative advantage in the production of wheat.

Table 2 shows how trade might be advantageous. Costs of production are as set out in Table 1. France is assumed to have 270 man hours available for production. Before trade takes place it produces and consumes 8 units of wheat and 5 units of rice. China has fewer labor resources with 180 man hours of labor available for production. Before trade takes place it produces and consumes 9 units of wheat and 6 units of rice. Total production between the two economies is 17 units of wheat and 11 units of rice.

Table 2
C o u n t r y Production Before Trade After TradeWheat Rice Wheat Rice France 8 518 0 China 9 60 12 T o t a l 17 11 18 12

If both countries now specialize, China producing only rice and France producing only wheat, total production is 18 units of wheat and 12 units of rice. Specialization has thus enabled the world economy to increase production by 1 unit of wheat and 1 unit of rice. If we apply the same logic to the entire economy of the world the production will increase by a gigantic amount.

There are a few assumptions in the simple theory of comparative advantage which are as follows-
No transportation cost is attached..
Costs are constant and there are no economies of scale.
Only two economies are involved in producing two goods.
The theory assumes that traded goods are homogeneous (i.e. exactly identical).
Factors of production are assumed to be perfectly mobile.
There are no tariffs or other trade barriers.
There is perfect knowledge, so that all buyers and sellers know where the cheapest goods can be found internationally.

All said above there are a certain factors because of which countries try to introduce the trade barriers generally in the form of import duties some of which are as follows-
Favorable balance of trade and reducing the fiscal deficit.
In order to protect a specific industriesclass of people if is a huge vote bank for the ruling government.

Public Psychology
Policies created to woo vote banks generally in democratic form of governments.

Per my understanding, rather than taking a political stand on the matters of globalization, we must allow the free economy and therefore should motivate and promote the free trade agreements like NAFTA which are the keys to success for the economy of entire world.