Political Science

The line item veto is the authority of the president to reverse or even cancel certain provisions of the bill which are related to budget, without vetoing the whole legislative package. These nullifications or cancellations can be subjected to legislative override. In the United States, the power is given to most state governors. There are just about seven states which lack this veto. Although this power is not included in the constitutions, it was given to the president of the confederate states at the time of the American civil war in 1861. The power allowed the confederate president to approve or disapprove provisions in the bill with the disapprovals being returned to the house for reconsideration and even override. Presidents of the United States have persistently requested the congress to grant them veto power. It started with President Ronald Reagan in 1986 at the state of the union address where he requested the congress to grant him the power. Bill Clinton also repeated the same request in 1995 at the state union address. In 1996, the president was granted this power in line with item line veto act of 1996 which was enacted by the congress with the aim of controlling pork barrel spending which was focused on regions instead of the whole nation. President bill Clinton used the power 82 times in 11 bills which were derived from the federal budget (Garrett, para. 4).

In 1998, the United States district court judge ruled that one-sided change of some parts of the law was against the constitution of the country. The ruling was later on supported by the United States Supreme Court in a case which was filed by the New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani against President Bill Clinton. The congress has periodically considered granting the president line item veto power since the court ruled against it. Although this power was overruled by the Supreme Court in 1998, President George W. Bush revisited the matter by requesting the congress to enact the law that would ensure return of the power to the president. He made the proposal at the state of the union address in 2006 and later on sent the legislative proposal to the congress on March 6, 2006 requesting for its faster enactment. The proposal was also introduced by a group of three people namely senator Bill Frist, senator John McCain, and the republican whip senator Mitch McConnell. The director of the office of management and budget gave a press conference on the same matter saying that the act will grant power to the president to disapprove unwise spending and put them on hold. He further differentiated this act from the one which was struck by the Supreme Court citing that before the president can act, he will have to seek congressional approval on such line item vetoes. This simply means that for a president to annul previously passed spending, a small majority of the congress is required to support that particular intention (Garrett, para. 8).

With the increasing interest in lowering the federal expenditure, some people have suggested a line item veto for the United States president so as to cut down unnecessary expenditure. The question which should be asked is the effectiveness of line veto in reducing spending. Some people have expressed fears that the act will grant the presidents excess power over government spending as compared to the powers of the congress. Some have even suggested that it would grant the president de facto legislative powers in changing the laws which could result in abuse of the principles of the constitution (Joyce and Reischauer, p. 54).

The act is supported by others who argue that it will make the president responsible for federal spending. It can also be applied in barring the passage of controversial provision changes that have been imposed into the bills by powerful legislators. It can also be used to hold responsible national leaders for the passage of controversial amendments. Even though line item veto has not existed, presidents have been pushed to sign controversial bills into law even without their support for such bills (Joyce and Reischauer, p. 55).

Line item veto has been in use in the states in the US for quite some time and has proved practical. It has also been applied in Washington and it worked. The power has worked to reduce unnecessary spending. President Bill Clinton used the budget reducing law 82 times to remove wasteful expenditures in approximately 11 budgetary bills. This resulted into about 2 billion savings in a period of five years. Although this sum appears insignificant in a 1.8 trillion annual budget, the economic advisers have cited that for the act to appear effective in controlling unnecessary expenditure, it must be in use for sometimes before the effects could be felt. While assessing the list of programs which were deleted by President Bill Clinton, almost all of them did not serve the interest of the nation. The congress accepted the request of Bill Clinton and granted him the line item veto power which he used wisely to eliminate the budgets of the unnecessary projects. In this case it worked as it was intended therefore it proved necessary (Moore, para. 6).

People feared that the president might abuse this power but this was not the case. There were complaints which were raised on the presidents use of the line item veto power. Senate appropriations committee chairman Ted Stevens claimed that Clintons actions in relation to line item veto was abuse of power. Others also complained that the president used the power to intimidate and threaten the congress. As much as the power proved necessary, there was one incident where the administration purportedly decided to remove a threatened line item veto of a 1.5 million cemetery enlargement in Rep. This case served as an example of abuse of power. Apart from this single case, there was no any other complaint of abuse of power by the administration.  In addition, most of the line items deleted were in Democratic districts which further indicate that the president did not act impartially (Joyce and Reischauer, p. 60).

Although the powers were used properly, the administration failed to give a proper explanation why some projects were deleted while others left. Line item veto can only function effectively if the president creates logical and strict methods and then applies the power in relation to the set standards. The president used the power sparingly because he cancelled some projects and left some which were also unnecessary and deserved to be cancelled. Example of such projects is Energy and Water bill of 1998.  If the criteria he used in applying the veto power was that the project should be funded at the local level or the projects whose cost surpasses the benefits, then the money which could have been saved from such projects would have been higher than that achieved (Kogan, para. 8).

Much work has been done to expose unnecessary spending by the federal government. With the increasing concern in reducing federal spending, there is need to grant the president item line veto power, but the president should also be ready to use the power whenever it is necessary. From the statistics above, it is true that careful use of item line veto power could result into more saving than what was realized. If this power was granted to President Reagan, the national debt might have reduced tremendously.

Other complaint which has been raised in regard to item line veto power is that it redirects the power of budget to the administration. It does not engage into a huge and exceptional power shift to the direction of the white house. It should be viewed as a relatively weak and limited re-establishment of the rightful budgetary powers of the president that were removed from the executive branch of the government by the 1974 Budget Act. The act resulted in removal of the powers of the president to take away funds which were not budgeted for appropriately. The power was exercised by presidents ranging from Thomas Jefferson through Richard Nixon (Joyce and Reischauer, p. 63).

I strongly believe that there is need to enact a constitutional amendment for presidential item line veto power with a two thirds override provision. It is the function of the executive branch of the government to determine whether the money budgeted for by the congress is necessary and serves the interest of the nation. If the power of the president to take away funds which was removed was put back in place, there would be no need for item line veto power. To ensure that the power is balanced between the executive and the legislature, the item veto will require the congress to attain two thirds supports in both houses to get funding for the program being questioned. This will assure the president that the program in question is highly supported. The line item veto should be given to presidents because it has more benefits. There is much evidence support the use of item line veto. It ensures that unnecessary spending which do no benefit tax payers is deleted.

Barack Obamas new strategy against the war on terror calls for the comprehensive approach of military and civilian efforts against remaining Taliban insurgents and Al-Qaeda operatives moving in and out of Afghanistan, Pakistan and its neighboring countries.

In my opinion, the Afghan people can expect to see more stabilized areas with the deployment of additional troops. Afghan security forces and civilians tasked for peacekeeping and nation-building after a U.S. withdrawal can better prepare under the guidance of American instructors. Consequently, resources and socio-infrastructure support can afford livelihood for Afghan civilians in war-torn areas, and hopefully entice non-extremist fighters to surrender. However, a credible and local co-implementor is essential for this partnership to continuously succeed, as stressed by former United Nations envoy to Afghanistan Peter Galbraith (Valera, 2009).

Moreover, another notable development is the role of Pakistan in the Afghan conflict. In exchange for military and monetary aid to stabilize Pakitans economy, the U.S. expects it to perform and clear out the insurgents and terrorists within its area. However, this line is met with caution, as echoed by military consultant David Kilcullen, who states that combatants and civilians are clearly known in Afghanistan, but in Pakistan, it is harder to determine allies from enemies (PBS, 2009).

With these developments, U.S. presence in these areas may have an effect on the relationship of Afghanistan and Iran, the perceived arms race between Pakistan and India, and other countries as well. Clearly, the new strategy will not just influence the drive against terrorism because as the plan moves forward, new scenarios will soon emerge.

The Balkans refers to the area in southwest Europe that spreads from Bulgaria to Serbia. The area is also known by other names like south-eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula. The name is derived from the Balkan Mountains that spread across the region. The population of the area is around sixty million and has an area of about 212,000 square miles. The countries that are physically located within the peninsula include, Albania Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, Serbia, Macedonia and Montenegro. The term Balkan is used to cover some countries that lie outside the peninsula like Romania, Slovenia and Croatia. Contemporary usage of the term Balkan especially in  the English speaking countries refers to the following countries  Albania, Bulgaria, Bosnia,  Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro  and Serbia, and sometimes may include  Moldova, Romania, Turkey and Slovenia.
The major natural resources that are present in the peninsula include coal, lead, zinc, chromium and silver. Petroleum deposits are available in Romania while lignite is present in Greece. The climate of the region is largely Mediterranean in the coast line while the interior has a continental climate. Agriculture is not widely practiced in the region due to the mountainous landscape (1). The region has a rich and diverse history which dates back to the Neolithic period. The history of the region is largely responsible for shaping the geopolitics of the region as well as shaping the relationships between the Balkan states and other countries over the years and even to the present. The cultures that have dominated the region over the years have been characterised by a blend of different cultures specifically the Greek and the Latin in the reign of the Roman Empire over the region. The region was also the meetings point of Catholicism and orthodox Christianity in early AD as well the region where Islam from the Middle East and Christianity in Europe met and fused in the 17th century.

In the classical period, the region was inhabited by the paenonians, Greeks, Thracians, dacians and the Illyrians. The area fell under the control of the Roman Empire during the 1st to 6th century which made the region adopt Roman traditions and customs and the Latin language. Despite these influences of the Romans in most of the regions, the predominant culture that was practiced was the Greek culture. In the middle ages, the region was characterized by a range of wars among the Serbian, Bulgarian and Byzantine empires. The Ottoman Empire which was created by the Turkish tribes reigned in the region between the 15th and the 19th century. It was the most authoritative and an influential empire on the peninsula and its era was characterised by fierce fight for freedom and conflicts with the Hapsburgs tribes which occurred across the borders of Hungary, Serbia and Croatia. The frequent wars during the reign of the Ottoman Empire made the Balkans to become the least developed part of Europe because of the obsession with war rather than economic development unlike in other areas of Europe where economic development was the preoccupation (2). The Ottoman Empire lasted until the 19th century when Turkey adopted a secular form of government.

Most of the countries within the Balkan Peninsula gained independence in the 19th century. Serbia gained independence in 1833, Greece in 1829 and Bulgaria and Montenegro in 1878.  The first major war of the Balkans occurred between 1912 and 1913 shortly after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. It involved an alliance of the Christian countries of the Balkan teaming up against the receding Turks which ended the authority of the Turks in the region. The war was fought for five months and shortly after the first war, the second Balkan war broke out which involved Bulgaria attacking Greece and Serbia which were former allies in the fight against the Turks after it was discontented with its share of the peninsula. The Bulgarians were defeated by an alliance of Greece, Serbia and Romania which contributed to the collapse of Bulgaria.

The region was critical in triggering the First World War which occurred after Serbia assassinated the austral Hungarian heir in 1914 which led to war between the two nations. The war sparked a series of alliances that were responsible for triggering the First World War. The Ottoman Empire was the first to join the alliance then Bulgaria which attacked Serbia. When the Greeks joined the alliance, the German Bulgarian front collapsed which ended the First World War. During the second war, most of the Balkan states were alliances with Germany in the war. The war expanded to the Balkan Peninsula when Italy invaded Greece making Germany to intervene. The area experienced the fiercest fighting of the world war and when the war ended, the region was left largely ruined and economically unstable (3).

During the cold war era, most Balkan states were under the control of communist Soviet Union. Greece was the first country to shun communism and adopt capitalist policies. However, during this period, some of the countries like Yugoslavia and Albania differed with the Soviet Union and sought better relations with the non communist west. They later joined the developing countries at the time in the Non Aligned Movement. Albania was the nation that maintained fierce communist ideals during the period. The defining period of the Balkan Peninsula occurred in the 1990s when civil war started in the region after the break away of the Yugoslavia republics after Serbia resolved to change the equality status of the states which was constitutionally ensconced. This resolve to alter the status and Serbian failure to endorse the dissolving of the Yugoslav union contributed to a civil war between it and the rest of the Balkan republics. The civil war resulted in international intervention by the UN and NATO against Serbia in the nations of Bosnia, Herzegovina and Kosovo (5).  The war resulted in attainment of full independence in the nations of Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro and Kosovo.  The main land routes that control Western Europe, Asia and the Middle East are located in the peninsula and this has made the area a region of interest not just to the EU but to other nations and Asia as well.

Since 2000, all the Balkan states have had good ties with the European Union and all of them have expressed their wish to join the European Union which has made the Balkans a region of interest to the Europeans. Greece joined the union in 1981 while Slovenia and Cyprus joined in 2004. The other countries to join the EU were Romania and Bulgaria in 2007 (4). This interest of the European Union in the Balkan states was particularly revealed in 2005 when the European Union resolved to commence accession and joining negotiations with the countries that qualified for candidate membership like Croatia, Turkey and Macedonia. In April 2009, other countries like  Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro and Romania all started talks on joining the union but Montenegro and Serbia were denied the offer of accession   after they declined  to engage with the ICC for war crimes that were committed during the civil war.

One of the major interests of the Europeans in the Balkan is financial aid and assistance for all the candidate nations for EU membership. These nations include Croatia, the former Yugoslav republics, and Turkey. The assistance is also extended to potential members like Herzegovina, Albania and Bosnia, Serbs, Kosovo and Montenegro. The financial assistance is aimed at aiding these nations to establish reforms in their economic, political and social institutions in order for them to meet the standards that are set for such institutions before the countries are granted membership (3). These reforms are aimed at improving the standards of living for these candidate countries in the recipient countries.

 The major focus of the financial assistance targets reforms in the political institutions especially the reinforcing of law, basic human rights and in safeguarding the rights of marginalized groups in the society in turn leading to the advancement of civil institutions of the society. The other aim of the financial aid is aimed at making the candidate countries to improve their market structures (6). Since it is a requirement for all  member states to have  a market economy that functions properly even with the tough competition and market dynamics of the European market, the aid therefore supports these countries  in  implementing market reforms that lead to economic development and improvements in the employment numbers.

The EU also provides assistance to these Balkan candidate countries to adopt these requirements that must be met before joining the union collectively known as acquis communautaire. The rate at which these candidate countries implement reforms and the rates of the accession process are closely tied because the faster the rate the higher the accession. The assistance helps the candidate countries to improve their joining prospects by lining the policies of the candidate countries to conform to the EU regulations, like the adoption of common policies governing the approach towards drug, crimes and illegal immigrants.  This aid helps improve the internal relations and the regional cooperation between the European Union and the Balkan states, a major interest for the Europeans. The aid also helps in promoting developing and reducing the levels of poverty in these states (7). The financial assistance also aims at changing the European economy and society as a whole by boasting trade within the whole of Europe continent.

The other major interest of the Europeans in the Balkans is promoting reconciliation between the different ethnic groups within the region through improving the contacts between the groups and the development of civil institutions. The EU aims at achieving this through reinforcing the respect of law, better governance and improving the justice and administrative practices within the region, The European Union has continually marshalled many policies to support this initiative in order to achieve progress for the region. There is a strong dedication from the members of the EU to continually support the Balkan people to adopt European ideals and standards of living. To achieve this, EU has adopted a policy of travel without visas across the union in order to ensure there is greater integration of the Balkans people into the European lifestyle.

In the areas of education, the Europeans through the European Union are committed towards improving cooperation and assistance in order to improve the development of civil society in the Balkan states. The European Union has continually increased substantially the scholarships allocated to students from the Balkan states to access education in the European Union member states.  The union has opened many agencies and programs in the Balkan states that are aimed at improving the cooperation between the educational and research institutions of the European institution member states and the Balkan states (8). These programmes will enhance the cooperation between the European Union and the Balkan states in the fields of science, research culture youth, environment and other social services

In the field of disaster prevention and environmental protection, the Europeans through the European Union has continued to provide assistance and cooperation in the event of disasters occurring in the as was witnessed in the well coordinated response to forest fires that occurred in Greece during the summer of 2007. The EU organised a structured response that spanned several borders which minimised the scale of the disaster. The aim of the Europeans through the European Union is to establish a program that handles disaster preparedness and response between the members states and the Balkan Peninsula that will be able to improve regional coordination in disaster management across the whole European continent.

In the field of transportation, the major interest of the Europeans is to be able to access the land routes that link Western Europe, Asia and the Middle East, since the major routes through land are located in the Balkans peninsula. The European Union has signed a treaty with the Balkan countries termed the West Balkan Transport Treaty (WBTT). The treaty is critical in ensuring the flow of goods between the Western Europe and Asia and is critical in boasting the volume of trade between Asia and the European Union. The Europeans other interest in the Balkan regions to extend the airspace of the European Union through the joining of Balkan states. A major stride has already been made through the signing of a treaty with some of the Balkan states called the European Common Aviation Area (ECAA). This treaty grants the European nations access to the airspace of the Balkan states (9).

Europeans interest in boasting trade in the European union is demonstrated in the rate at which it has granted candidate status to some of these states in the Balkan peninsula even with countries that differ with it in ideologies like Turkey and the signing of the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) that is aimed at contributing to the wider development of the whole European territory. The other area of interest for the Europeans is the collaboration in the field of energy production and utilization between the Balkan states and the European Union. This regional cooperation in energy issues is achieved through the Energy Community Treaty (ECT) which outlines frameworks that outline the areas and the guidelines on collaboration between the Balkan states and the European Union.

Another issue that is of concern to the Europeans is the massive immigration of the Balkan people into the European Union due to the accession of the Balkan countries to the European Union. There are conflicting views of the effects of this migration once more countries get full membership to the European Union. The effect of immigration are already being felt in the European Union countries due to a relaxation of the visa requirements between the EU and some of the Balkan states like a drop in the wages due to availability of cheap labour from these countries. Some of the member countries argue that the massive immigration is essential in improving the status of the Balkan economy through the remittance of funds to their respective economies from these immigrant populations (4). This issue of immigration is a thorny issue for the European Union and the Balkan states as well. This issue will continue to have many consequences and raise varied opinions as more of these Balkan states get integrated into the European Union.

The effects of immigration in the European Union have made some governments to adopt some protectionist policies that limit the influx of unskilled workers into their countries. For example, the United Kingdom has adopted some measures that propose the imposing of heavy fines to employers who employ unskilled workers. The measures were adopted after the effects of immigration from the Balkan states worsened an already bad immigration crisis from other regions of the world .The major effects of the massive  immigration to the European economy has been its the effects on the labour markets especially the employment numbers and the wages. Another effect of the massive immigration from the Balkan states to the European Union has been the pressure and strain on public social services because of the build up of sudden demand, (10). The effects of the Balkan immigration will continue to haunt the member countries of the European Union as it expands through the accession and joining of more Balkan states

With the exit of United States from running the affairs of the Balkan states by the Bush administration, the European Union have assumed the responsibility of maintaining peace in this troubled Balkan peninsula. The policy of the EU towards attaining regional stability and overcoming the ethnic hatred and tensions that have characterized the region is driving the Balkan region towards embracing Europes society values of tolerance and pluralism through offering membership to these states. The European Union has also drafted a pact that outlines the framework of establishing dialogue, cooperation and reconciliation of these states (8). Another policy employed by the Europeans through the European Union is the enactment of a guideline called the Stabilization and Association Process (SAP), which provides guidelines on the process of membership and accessation.

The other major interest of the Europeans in the Balkan region is the opportunity it offers of foreign direct investment (FDI). The collapse of communism and accessation of some of these countries in joining the European union have made the Balkan states  a  favourable business destination for   attracting  investors from the European union and other regions of the world as well. Countries such as Bulgaria, Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, Macedonia and Romania all have been characterized by poor leadership that cripples the reforms that attract the foreign direct investment and therefore have not benefited substantially from the opportunity though of late there has been considerable progress in implementing the reforms that favour the flow of FDI into their economies (11).

The major countries of the European Union that have invested into the region include Spain, Ireland, Portugal, Greece and the United Kingdom. The Balkan states have attracted the investment due to opening of their borders which offer opportunities challenges and incentives for foreign direct investment. The major factors hampering more investment by the Europeans in the region include poor leadership, great distance from the west and cultural differences between the region with other parts of Europe, the regions inclination towards Soviet Communist policies and the political instability that have characterised the region. With the acessation of many of these states to membership of the European Union, the region stands to benefit from more inward investment of foreign direct investment from the Europeans from the European Union members

The other critical role the Balkan Peninsula plays is that it influences the relationship between the European Union and Russia. Russia plays a key role of providing about 25 of the energy needs of the Europeans. The pipelines and other infrastructure that transfer oil and gas from Russia to the European union cut across most of the states of Balkan and the major infrastructure for transporting the resources into the European union member states are under construction in most of the Balkan states with most installations being constructed in Romania and Slovakia in order to meet the growing demand for the resource in Europe.  Therefore, the relations that exist between Russia and the European Union are largely influenced by the relations between the Balkans and the Europeans and the relations between Russia and the Balkan nations (12). The energy aspect will continue to shape the relations between the European Union and Russia for a long time with the signing of treaty that allows construction of major routes of transporting petroleum and gas through the Balkan

Another major interest the Europeans have in the Balkan is shaping the geopolitical equation of the Balkan Peninsula. For example, the negotiation of the end of conflict in Serbia and Macedonia in early 2001 was made due to extreme Europe involvement. The major issues that will shape the reorganization of the geopolitical boundaries of the region include the individual preferences of the member states that will prevent the European Union from adopting a common policy for the Balkan states. An example of this is the conflict of the usage of the name Macedonia. The common term for the EU is Macedonia but Greece refuses to recognize the name and instead prefers to use the term former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia to refer to the nation of Macedonia.

Another example of the differences within the EU  are the differences that exist between Turkey and Greece which have delayed the achievement of cooperation in all the states in the field of military cooperation. Another example of how the differences in the views of the member states will continue to shape the geopolitics of the region is proposition by the French president to delay the total independence of Kosovo in 2007 in order for France to position itself to change the Balkan politics according to its preferences. These differing policies will have a profound influence on the geopolitics and political stability of the region especially at this time when many of these Balkan states are gearing up for European Union membership (13).

The major agenda of the Europeans in the Balkans is to expand their union in order to make it to conform to its founding principles. These principles were the unity of all the continent of Europe after the world war in maintaining peace through integration. Its other founding principle was to ensure the safeguarding of a common way of life that is founded on the principles of good governance and freedom. This is what has inspired the European Union to admit some of these Balkan states to members and also giving candidate status for some of the members in order to achieve these objectives (14). This enlargement is aimed at increasing the influence of the Europeans in the world stage.

The other area of interest to the Europeans is the area of humanitarian relief. European Union is the largest contributor of finance, soldiers, policemen and experts in many of the humanitarian operations in the Balkan Peninsula. The European Union has been critical in implementing programs aimed at repatriating the refugees of the conflicts that have occurred in the region and remains an area of interest to the Europeans as it indicates the level of advancement in democracy for the Europeans.  The other role that interests the Europeans in the Balkan regions is the security role. The European Union regards the maintaining of political stability within South East Europe to be among the majors of its precedence. From the time the European union took the security interventions in the Balkan peninsula in the period between 1999 and 2003, the policy of integrating its security systems and planning concepts have made it to broaden its scope of international military operations ever since (15). The Balkan Peninsula was the foundation of its new policies on security and it still acts as a major inspiration and a reference ground for testing the future challenges for it in military operations as it aims at becoming a major actor in international resolution of conflicts. The improvements of the European Union involvement with the Balkan states have made it to launch a uniform security policy for all the member states.

In summary, the interests and the policies of the Europeans will continue to influence the security, instability and economic growth of the Balkan states. The key issue that will contribute towards peace and stability for the region will be the rate at which the European Union approves accesation and membership for each of the member states. Approval of each of the member states will have consequences and wider implications within the European Union and across the Balkan states as well in terms of peace and stability. Despite the interests and policies of the EU towards these Balkan sates to improve their a cessation, and the rate of admission to membership, the major determinate of the rate of integration will the will of the Balkan states themselves and not the wish of the European union  member states. In conclusion, it is evident that almost every aspect of the Balkan states future will be much under the influence of the interplay of factors outside their control especially the interests of the Europeans on the region.

This paper discusses social hierarchy as one of the main factors contributing to poverty in India. While taking cues from the novel, The White Tiger by Aravind Adiga, this paper draws insights from peer reviewed resources to confirm that caste system contributes to poverty.  The main argument of this paper is mainly grounded on social inequalities or the established system in societal hierarchy as one of the causes of poverty in India.

The basic plot of The White Tiger centers around Balram Halwai, the protagonist and the main character of the story who grows up in an impoverished village of Laxmangarh, India and ends up working as a driver for the rich and urbanized Ashok. Ashok comes from the clan of feudal landlords who ruin or even run the lives of Halwais folks residing at the village. Although Ashok comes from the well-off feudal family and treats Halwai way better than he treats the other servants and chauffeurs, Halwai seizes the chance to kill his master and run-off with large amount of money enough to establish him as a wealthy businessman in India.

The protagonists journey from having lowly origins coming from the remote village describe as the darkness, to the murder of his employer, and to his transformation into a businessman is retold through the letters sent by Halwai and addressed to Wen Jiabao, the Premier of the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China.

The novel reveals the dark issue of social hierarchy through the usage of metaphors and allegories aiming at the negative impact of caste system. According to Halwai, those people who continue to be eaten by the predator are being trapped inside a small closed cage known as the rooster coop that limit their opportunities to explore greater heights.

The White Tiger by Aravind Adiga
The White Tiger is a critically acclaimed novel by Aravind Adiga that posits the destructive virtues of contemporary India. The novel depicts social and economic inequalities by drawing insights from the life of its main character, Balram Halwai who distinguishes two separate worlds existing in the third world nation. One of the two disparate worlds of Halwai include the small and remote village of Laxmangarh where he was born and raised to become a laborer. The village is located in the Darkness, a specific backward part of India controlled by crooked and feudally powerful landlords that instigate societal inequalities in the land.  The darkness of the village urges the main character to question, there is no water in our taps, and what do you people in Delhi give us you give us cell phones. Can a man drink a phone when he is thirsty

Born in a region which is under the cruel jurisdiction of feudal lords, Halwais parents could not even provide him with a proud name and instead, they just called him boy of lowly origin due to the fact that powerful families control everything in the land, the opportunities are very limited in the region, and almost everyone is destined to be servants of feudal families. Halwai says, the desire to be a servant had been bred into me hammered into my skull, nail after nail, and poured into my blood, the way sewage and industrial poison are poured into Mother Ganga. The author is able to emphasize that the remote village is a place of extreme hopelessness by citing its allegorical figures of corrupt wealth the four particular landlords who are given animalistic names by the white tiger, Halwai himself. The Great Socialist appears in the picture through his re-election by virtue of false promises of change and corrupt electioneering.

The other disparate world of Halwai is the sliver of the Indian state which he inhabits as a humble driver for the westernized son of the village landlord, Ashok.  The city where the protagonist is taken to render service for Ashok offers him the realization that there is a new societal system mobilizing in both India and the world and this system possesses some Hindu features.

In the countenance of Halwai, glamorous and fancy malls, which are  a forbidden place for him, the air-conditioned Honda the he drives, and the red purse consisting of large amount of money for politicians who possess power over The Storks enterprise constitute the crazy city.

The White Tiger takes the form of a series of letters written by the protagonist and addressed  to Wen Jiabao, the Premier of the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China, on the eve of his visit in New Delhi. In the conversation, the protagonist recounts his story as a boy with lowly origins residing in the Darkness where education and electricity are scarced  and where people commonly banter about election like eunuchs discussing Kama Sutra. Halwai then shifts the topic to his transformation to becoming a killer.

The darkly comic explicates the factors why chauffeur Halwai murders his employer and tries to justify the crime as an act of social entrepreneur. Halwai divulges that his rage is deeply rooted out from the avarice of the upper class society in New Delhi.

Although, Halwais social journey from rags to riches is replete with cliched conversations and representations which are a common feature in the Indian contemporary literature, the novel confirms Indias longstanding battle against the backlash of its societal hierarchy.  As the author excludes the subject of the prevalence of good will over evil deeds, he is able to emphasize the true emotion of men against inhumanities and is able to expose the reason why people of lower class commit illegal acts and misdeeds to pursue their own intention.

Caste System and the Disadvantaged Minority Groups in India
 The caste system of India is a Hindu societal order containing features that are in contrast with the legally accepted characteristics of international human rights framework. Since its independence, the Indian state has been deeply troubled with the widespread of poverty and has implemented anti-poverty legislations to address the crisis.

The Indian government has long been using public policy to eliminate caste-based discrimination to prevent social breakdown and to uplift the economic status of the impoverished groups. At the center of the nations pursuit is the implementation of the constitutional mandate which ensures the presence of the legislators belonging to minority groups in state and national legislatures.

But still, several legal initiatives and measures aiming at the complete demise of caste-based discrimination are unable to hinder the presence of the ancient social hierarchy in the daily lives of Indians. The country tends to deny its citizens the freedom to partake in the benefits and advantages of representative democracy. Indians have long been silenced when it comes to the establishment of fair and just government policies. As a result of Indias dysfunctional democracy, caste system is strengthened and has contributed to the economic deprivation of those born into lower states.

In a relevant research, Yoko Kijima says that despite policies targeting scheduled castes (SC) and scheduled tribes (ST), there remain large disparities of living standards between the SCSt and non SCST household in India.  Kijima adds that the SCST households may be poorer because they possess lower human and physical capital , but they may also earn lower returns to these assets.  In this study, it can be argued that the historically disadvantaged minority groups in India are the ones who have to deal with the states lack of complete policy commitment targeting the demise of the caste system together with its setbacks.

Adigas representation of Halwai as coming from the impoverished region of India  is a strategic move aiming at the exposing what India has become since the advent of  modernization, a period which the upper class  has taken advantaged of making the poor, poorer and the rich, richer. 

The novel is suggestive of the fact that due to the failure of Indias government to enact laws meant to alleviate social hierarchy, those who belong to the lower class of the caste system will be the finite slaves of the rich and wealthy westernized first class Indians.

The lack of strong commitment of the policy-makers in India has encouraged the creation of politics of caste and religion, not only as an academic exercise, but also as a developmental practice.  A recent study suggests that the existing policies should never be ignored or be viewed as anachronistic or backward, instead, they should be perceived as opportunities for development activists to facilitate grassroots initiatives and involvement leading to a higher degree of democratization.

The untouchable status of Indias caste system been studied by several scholars who are at one in saying that India has its own social system that differs from the social stratification system found in the other parts of the world and it also possesses social, economic and political institutions that wee mostly static and unchanging.

Although, the caste system of India was perceived to be a unique system by classical theorists, Halwai of the White Tiger never believes in the uniqueness of such structure because the system is nothing but a glitch to him. In the eyes of the Halwai, some of the oppressive features of the Indian social hierarchy are segmental division of society hierarchy restrictions on feeding and social intercourse civil and religious privileges lack of unrestricted choice of occupation and restrictions on marriage.

For Halwai, the restrictions and limitations allowed him to form an inner uprising against the tyrant society and to resort to murder as an answer to the turmoil. Halwai is saddened for what the country has become after its long journey towards equal societal progress. It can be said that the country is badly modified by globalization and effects of industrialization. Halwais decision to murder upper class Ashok and take all his money to become a rich businessman signifies that Americanization and multiculturalism have already shaped and turned Hindu traditions away from social security. 

The basic pursuit of Indians towards socio-economic security can be divided into fur realms which are food, health, housing, education and employment.  Considering himself as deprived of the five categories, Halwai considers himself as a lifetime slave because the lowest class of the society has not been given ways to socially secure itself.  Most of the socially unsecured Indians are concentrated in the rural area wherein 47. 6 percent of the population  are deprived with all of the five categories.  Such deprivation is attributable to poverty because the lower class is left with tiny holdings scarced with financial support bestowed with little resources to take the risks of the unknown and has no aspiration for the improvement of lives.

Conclusion
The novels portrayal of social divide in India reveals how a hopeless Indian is able to penetrate the countrys corrupt system to be able get what he desires at the steepest of worth. Though witty and comic, Adigas book is a brutal presentation of Indias class struggles and how anger and envy derived from poverty and social inequalities breed murder. The book is a visible proof of the finite battle of India to re-establish its society free from inequalities and guided by fair and just laws and legislations.

According to the book, India is a land trapped in a mono-classic belief in its traditions. The country needs a reform that will embrace the indigenous and impoverished society as individuals deserving of equal socio-economic opportunities. India needs to strengthen its policies targeting the lower class to be able to instigate progress and to evenly distribute the advantages and benefits of a rewarding economy and international partnerships with other nations.

Unemployment occurs when a skilled, unskilled or semiskilled individual is available and ready to do a job, but he or she is without work presently. Economics believe in the inevitability of unemployment. The natural rate of unemployment may be helpful because it prevents inflation. The current rise in unemployment is worsened by the existing worldwide economic crunch. Economies are doing poorly, therefore goods and services have inefficient demand. When producers do not have a ready market for their output, the demand for the labor input will be reduced so as to maximize profits at the lowest cost possible. Firms have been forced to layoff workers due to the existing restructuring programs aimed at dealing with the current economic crisis. Structural issues or hick ups and inefficient labor markets have also reduced the demand for labor force. The mismatch for laborers demand and supply may cause the skilled workforce not to get employed due to the disruptions caused by technologies and globalization. The use of technology is reducing the need for the labor input in production processes. Machines are said to do the work which could have been done manually by individuals and this lowers the demand for labor.

(Sloman, 2006 p.16-24)
Rigidities from outside, for example unionization, taxes, laws for minimum wages or other government regulations are discouraging employers from recruiting people. Labor unions force employers to respect workers rights and privileges. Employers will therefore tend to avoid unionized workforce, because they prove to be expensive to any business entity. The payment of taxes on the labor forces salaries may prove to be a burden to the organizations and they may therefore want to limit their labor force as much as possible. Voluntary decisions by the unemployed and the time taken to get a new job, have also been contributing to unemployment greatly. May professional laborers are choosy and may take sometime before they get a hob as per their career.

HOW TO REVERSE UNEMPLOYMENT
On the demand-side solving, government funds are necessary to trigger off employment. The government should bailout needy firms that may be faced with serious liquidity problems causing massive layoffs. Huge companies that have been greatly affected by the current economic crisis need to receive government donations for them to remain in operation and keep their labor force at work, avoiding an increase in unemployment. The government should also guarantee jobs at a living wage. This may be in the form of public work systems but it is a temporary measure. Government funding solution can only be utilized at times of crisis, because the private sector is considered superior in the employment field. Government bailout plans will cause an increased demand for goods and services, which causes an increase in the demand for labor resulting in high employment with increased wages.
Monetary policies can drive short-term economic growth causing an increased labor demand and this reverses the state of unemployment. The demand side solutions involve the eradication of minimum wages and the reduction of labor union powers. Firms should be allowed to hire at the wage that they can afford, considering that the economy is doing badly at present. The workforce should also be encouraged to consider career growth and development. Advancing in education helps one to have a competitive advantage for the limited jobs in the market. The supply side approach causes a long term growth in employment, because more workers are utilized. Cutting down of corporate taxes and reduction of regulations help in creating jobs hence reversing unemployment.

During the Cold War era anti-communism emerged in the U.S. as an ideology that formed the basis for making sense of a complex international community and its contrast with U.S. socio-economic and political conventions.  Communism was perceived by US policymakers as a threat primarily because it could not be distinguished from the USSRs thriving power.  Communism was perceived as a broader threat to the ideology of open and free markets and protection of private properties, political traditions that the U.S. cultivated and supported.  In this regard, during the Cold War, anti-communism emerged as a guiding principle for not only US domestic policies, but also a signature strategy in US foreign policy (Painter 1999, 19).  This research examines the ideology of anti-Communism in the US and its consequences for foreign policy during the Cold War.

US Anti-Communism During the Cold War
Anti-communism in the US was not a new phenomena during the Cold War era.  Prior to the Cold War era and prior to the Second World War, anti-communism was very much on the minds of Americas (Boyle 2001, 324).  Anti-communism however, was always somehow associated with the USSR rather than on the ills of domestic communism (Boyle 2001, 324).  There was however some focus on domestic communism during the depression era of the 1930s which resulted in a hearing before the Congressional committee after the publication of I Confess The Truth about American Communism by Benjamin Gitlows in 1939.  The Congressional hearing was an investigation of what it characterized as an un-American activity (Boyle 2001, 235).

In general, anti-communism was a relatively minimum policy or fear in the American political and social psyche and did not catch on to a greater extent during the Second World War.  The Grand Alliance between the U.S., the U.K. and the USSR function to constrain any real anti-communist themes in the U.S. government policies both at home and abroad.  Consequently, the US came out of the Second World War relatively ambivalent toward the threat of communism.  As Boyle (2001) explains
the American public emerged from the war neither overly cautious towards anti-communism appeals nor obsessed with the Communist threat (325).

The Cold War emanated from the close of the Second World War in 1945 and gained momentum in the ensuing years, finally coming to an end by 1990.  The Cold War involved almost every member of the international community but was spurred and driven by a power struggle between the U.S. and the USSR (Kort 2000, 3).  At its core, the Cold War was an exercise in promoting conflicting political ideologies to the extent that both the U.S. and the USSR viewed the others social, political and economic systems as a threat.  These two conflicting ideologies was the Soviets communism and the U.S.s democracy (Kort 2000, 4).

From the U.S. perspective, the USSR was pursuing an expansionist vision in which it attempted to spread Communism as far and as wide as possible.  Therefore the U.S. assumed a containment policy which commenced with the introduction of the Truman Doctrine (Bardes, Shalley and Schmidt 2007, 529).  Anti-communism took its place during the Cold War as the U.S.s most formidable political ideology and one that gave MaCarths failing political aspirations a second chance when he took the podium as an advocate against communism.  The fact is, ever since the introduction of the Truman Doctrine, the dangers of communism occupied virtually every mind in the U.S. administration (Li and Hong 1997, 86).

U.S. Foreign Policy During the Cold War Era
The Truman Doctrine
The U.S. containment policy which characterized much of the U.S. anti-communism policies in its approach to foreign affairs was essentially introduced by U.S. President Harry Truman on March 12, 1947 when he addressed a joint session of Congress (Paterson 1991, 449).  Truman was addressing Congress on the Greek civil war which was a conflict in which a communist group of insurgents attempted to oust what was characterized as a pro-Western government (Murrin, Johnson, McPherson and Gerstle 2008, 701-702).

Greece was under the influence of the British who eventually pulled out of the conflict maintaining that it was impossible to sustain its previous strong presence in Greece and all of the Middle East as well (Murrin, Johnson, McPherson and Gerstle 2008, 702).  Truman was advised however, that the insurgents victory in Greece could spill over into Turkey, its neighbor and this would comport with the USSRs expansion strategies.  Truman responded by lobbying Congress for US aid to Greece and Turkey.  According to Truman, the fate of the worlds free people were in jeopardy which was directly relevant to the U.S.s national security interests.  Truman told Congress that if the U.S. did not lend aid to nations that were resisting attempted subversion by armed minorities or by outside pressures, there was an increased danger that communism would penetrate the entire world and this was a direct threat to the U.S. (Murrin, Johnson, McPherson and Gerstle 2008, 702).

Despite some skepticism, Truman was successful in his plea to Congress and was rewarded with approval for US400 million primarily for military aid to Greece and Turkey.  This approval was a manifestation of bipartisan support for national security policy which eventually took the name containment (Murrin, Johnson, McPherson and Gerstle 2008, 702).  The term containment however was coined by George Kennan who was the Soviet expert in the U.S. Department of State.  Kennan used the term in an article he wrote anonymously in the Foreign Affairs journal in 1947 in which Kennan wrote that the primary factor for U.S. policy both at home and abroad must be that of a long term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies (Kennan, 1957, 566).

Containment therefore became the all-encompassing rational for both domestic and foreign policy security policies.  It was popularly believed that containment as a policy connected all left wing insurgencies regardless of where it occurred to a totalitarian movement which was influenced and controlled by the USSR and was in turn a direct threat to the US security interest (Murrin, Johnson, McPherson and Gerstle 2008, 702). 

The Truman Doctrine which gave birth to the containment policy had profound consequences for anti-communism approaches to domestic policies both at home and abroad.  Truman introduced a Loyalty Program which was designed to identify and oust from public employment any person suspected of having communist ideology and connections.  On a foreign level, policies were implemented by virtue of the National Security Act 1947 and the Marshall Plan which came in response to the Berlin crisis.  There were several bureaucracies emerging under this new anti-communism regime that would have significant influences on U.S. foreign policy.  These political instruments would create the National Security Council who had a broad discretion for the planning and implementation of U.S. foreign policy. One of its most important accomplishments was the creation of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) who would use funds provided secretly to encourage anticommunist activities around the globe (Murrin, Johnson, McPherson and Gerstle 2008, 703). 

The CIA would create and cultivate ties in Eastern Europe to circumvent the success of communists movements.  The CIA would also facilitate campaigns to disrupt the Italian Communist Party coming to power via general election in 1948.  The CIA was ultimately responsible for anti-communists movements in many parts of the world including France and Japan (Murrin, Johnson, McPherson and Gerstle 2008, 702). 

In furtherance of its anti-communism containment policy on a foreign level, Truman turned his attention to the economic situation in Western Europe.  Believing that the declining economic situation in that region would only bolster communist sentiments,  George Marshall, Trumans Secretary of State took steps to address the economic situation in Western Europe.  Under the auspices of the Marshall Plan which was enacted in 1948 funds were therefore directed to Western European nations and amounted to approximately US13 billion by 1951  (Murrin, Johnson, McPherson and Gerstle 2008, 703). 

US Containment and Anti-Communism in Foreign Policy Strategies Following the Truman Era
Bostdorff (2008) explains that the undertones of national security and containment would become a recurring theme in US foreign policy long after Truman vacated office (147).  These foreign policies which were rooted in the anti-communist containment strategies were manifested by the Korean War which started during Trumans presidency and carried on through the presidency of Dwight Eisenhower the Vietnam War under  successive US Presidents, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson, Richard and Gerald Ford (from 1959-1975) Cuban Missile Crisis under President John F. Kennedy  the 1984 Grenada invasion under Ronald Reagan among other similar conflicts (Bostdorff 2008, 148).

Lyndon Johnsons 1965 administrations foreign policy during the Cold War era was characterized by the concept that that U.S. would not permit the implementation of another communist government in the Americas.  The Nixon administration in 1969 demonstrated a somewhat reluctant commitment to containment, perhaps borne out of exasperation with the ongoing Vietnamese War and announced that the U.S. was trying to extract itself from Vietnam and that the US would offer aid to other countries by virtue of economic and military assistance rather than with American troops (Kort 2000, 115). 

President James Carter in 1980, a bit more reluctant than Nixon, but still committed somewhat to the anti-communist rhetoric promised that the US would use force to defend the Persian Gulf from a Soviet takeover.   The final Cold War president, Ronald Reagan in 1985, declared that the US would offer its support to anti-communist freedom fighters who took steps to overthrow communist regimes in the Third World (Kort 2000, 115). 

By the 1970s, the tensions between the US and the USSR had intensified to such an extent that there was a period of dtente (Shabad 1976,  96).  Dtente was characteristic of relaxations in East-West relations following intense periods of conflict, a pattern which marked the consequences of the U.S.s anti-communism and the apparent USSRs expansionism policies (Schlotter 1983, 213). For example, in the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis in the 1960s U.S. President Kennedy and USSR leader Krushchev commenced a period of dtente which was short-lived as a result of Kennedys assassination and a Kremlin power change which vacated Kruschchevs office in 1964.  Leonid Brezhnevs rise to power in the USSR saw a renewal of the Soviet expansionist ideology when the Soviets Red Army invaded Czechoslovakia and as a result, the U.S. renewal of its containment policies (Bryne 2004, 74).
While Lyndon Johnson, Kennedys successor made no progress with respect to dtente, Nixon with the aid of Henry Kissinger made significant progress.  This renewed approach to dtente came as a result of Nixons commitment to ensure Washingtons leadership in the West.  Europe in particular had become disenchanted with U.S. foreign policy following the US War with a former French Colony, Indochina.  Frances President Charles De Gualle responded by withdrawing from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and went to Moscow in 1966 to meet with Brezhnev in 1966. Moreover, West Berlin was introducing a Eastern Policy known as Ostpolitik in which it took steps to improve its relations with communist East Germany (Taubman 2004, 396).

In any event, each of these stalemates and crises that brought the conflicting ideologies between the U.S and the USSR into direct contact with one another, the U.S. was able to somehow claim globalization of its containment policies (Harrell, Gaustad and Boles 2005, 1011).  In an ironic way, the struggle for world domination via the U.S. containment policies and the USSRs expansion policies between the two super powers prevented mass destruction, something both sides were more than capable of accomplishing. 

The Korean War for example, although very much a by-product of the US anti-communist rhetoric during the Cold War era, also function to offer proof of the consequences of the balance of fear perpetuated by two competing ideologies that drove foreign policies in Moscow and Washington.  The Korean War with all its potential to lead to a Third World War and the end of humanity was a limited war because it had the potential to destroy the world (Harrell, Gaustad and Boles 2005, 1011).

The conflict in Korea was demonstrative of all the complex consequences for world peace as a direct result of U.S. foreign policy under the auspices of anti-communism and the USSRs expansionism strategies.  Both countries had equal nuclear powers, none more formidable than the other.  Although the U.S. could have used its nuclear arsenal against North Korea and China it dared not for fear of Soviet nuclear retaliation (Harrell, Gaustad and Boles 2005, 1011).  This kind of nuclear stalemate would characterize all of the containment and expansionism foreign policies arising out of the Cold War era.  It limited the USs reach in terms of spreading its anti-communism strategies and it limited the USSRs ability to expand.

Conclusion
The fall of the Soviet Union, the reunification of Germany and the first Persia Gulf War during 1989-1991 had a profound impact on U.S. anti-communism sentiments and therefore changed the geopolitical alignments upon which anticommunism and American national identity rested for the duration of the Cold War (Zeskind 2009, 219).  Nationalism in the form of ethnic and political identities in the U.S. were founded on new principles that were far removed from anti-communist rhetoric. 
The U.S. attention is currently turned to its recent declaration of war against international terrorism following the September 11 terror attacks in the US.  Even so, there is a sufficient connection between these anti-terrorism policies and anti-communism foreign policies to substantiate an argument that U.S. foreign policies are always vested in national security.  The underlying goal of both of these foreign policies are essentially provide a sound national security framework.  Whether or not it means securing its borders or its political ideology, the U.S. ultimately seeks to secure for the US the concepts of democracy.  In this regard, the Cold War anti-communism foreign policies are just as relevant to that goal as the current declaration of war against international terrorism.

The fall of the Soviet Union brought the end of the Cold War and the transition to democracy in Eastern Europe. The end of the Cold War, in essence, brought the collapse of traditional studies of communist system of government as popularized by Karl Marx (Marxism). The European concept of Euro Communism however is totally different from liberal democracy the former as an offshoot of socialism while the latter of representative democracy.

In essence, the end of cold war is said to be the start of democratization process in Eastern European countries like Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia. The transition towards democracy offered encouraging political models for former Soviet-controlled countries. As a result, an air of revolution rocked Eastern Europe, starting in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, East Germany and Bulgaria. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, former Communist countries adopted democratic models of government.

In Poland, the transition to democracy highlighted the basic assumptions of the Polish revolution. This peaceful character can be traced to the Solidarity movement popularized by Lech Walesa and supported by Catholic Church hierarchy. Thus, it goes without saying that the successful democratization of Poland after 1989 is based on the determination of the Polish people to reform the countrys political structure. In a sense, the overwhelming international petition for the Solidarity movement was due perhaps to the struggle for democracy and human rights together with its active defense of social justice and workers rights. The Catholic Church supported the Solidarity because of its positive impact on the attitude of Polish society in promoting a peaceful transition from Communism to democracy.
In Hungary, the transition to democracy only occurred after the Cold War. According to Crepaz and Steiner (2010), this shift to democratic form of government and free enterprise economy depended solely on the nature of the military controlled under civilian authority. This transition to a Western-style parliamentary democracy was the initial and the smoothest abandonment of Stalinist communism. Moreover, the full transition to democracy finally attained its perfection after the first free parliamentary election was held in May 1990, where the Democratic Forum (MDF) won over Free Democrats (SZDSZ). Jozsef Antall was elected as the new Prime Minister.

On the 1st of July 1991,  Warsaw Pact was officially vanished at a meeting in Prague (in Czechoslovakia) when President Gorbachev of Soviet Union and President Bush of United States make a strategic partnership which decisively ended the Cold War. As the Soviets rapidly withdrew its forces from Eastern Europe, the leftover of the 1989 Disruption began to reemerge in many parts of the country. This led supporters to call for the election of candidates who opposed the Communist government. These movements were further strengthened by the rapid disintegration of the Soviet economy, making Moscow (capital of Soviet Union) the scapegoat of economic suicide. A coup attempted to replace Gorbachev.

This attempt failed because of the opposition of the people. President Boris Yeltsin rallied the people to support the defunct Gorbachev. The coup eventually subsided and Gorbachev returned to power. Months later, Gorbachev announced the disintegration of the Soviet Union, marking the end of the Cold War. The Soviet Union disbanded into fifteen constituent parts. This marked the end of the largest and most influential communist state (Soviet Union), leaving China to be the foremost successor state of Marxist ideology.

These political revolutions which rocked Eastern Europe included the Spring movement in Czechoslovakia or the 1968 Revolution, the Fall of Communism in 1989, Orange Revolution in 2004 and many others. The foremost objective of these revolutions was to overthrow the real socialist regimes. The social developments which followed these political revolutions are termed as transition to democracy and market economy. These developments maybe considered as types of social revolutions, although differing in theory, focus, and application. This new theoretical thinking developed as a result of new kinds of power relationships. Crepaz and Steiner (2010) argued that the end of Cold War between the West and Eastern Block is part of a general political revolution which resolved the issues of power, legitimacy, and theory appropriateness. This thinking also opened new social reconstruction programs which emphasized political empowerment and market autonomy.

Democratization therefore is a transition from totalitarian forms of power relations to representative forms of government. During the Cold War, this was a notion that most people fought for, including the Freedom House. Various patterns of democratization are used to strengthen political and economic structures. The objective was to attain political flexibility and economic growth. The failure of the Communist state to achieve this objective highlighted a major theoretical flaw. Economic development was slower in Communist countries than in democratic countries.

It can be argued that the expansion of economic reforms had mixed effects on democratization. In many ways, it is said that some forms of democratic governments are general constraints to the expansion of international capital markets. However, this conclusion is far from an accepted claim.