DQ1 Explain how policy decisions can drive intended outcomes and what can cause them to fail.
Policy is described as a plan of action that is deliberate that helps policy makers to make concrete decision about a particular issue so as to achieve good outcome. Policy can be used as a way of referring to what has been done before putting adequate plans. Making of policies can be applied in government or private sector especially in management, politics, and administration of financial practices. The application of good policies in these particular fields helps to achieve certain laid goals in an organization. The outcome of any given issue that requires making of policies entirely depends on implementation of policies that have been made (Morrone, Lohner, 2002). Good examples of policies include order from the president, rules of order governing parliament and privacy policies made in corporate.
Sometimes, policy is confused to mean the same thing as law but there is a very big difference. Law in the capacity of government is used to compel or control behavior of individuals but policy is used to provide guidance in when making decision about an issue thus resulting to an outcome. Every organization needs to make policies that guide the operations of an organization and it is also a way of promoting organizational decisions. An organization has to make decisions on which alternatives should be implemented for better results and this can be achieved through application of good policies. Good policies therefore will lead to good outcome while implementation of bad policies leads to poor results (Zsambok, Klein, 1999). On the other hand, policy can fail to give good outcome. This can be caused by lack of adequate information about a given policy, poor leadership policies and failure to implement recommended policies.
DQ2 Who are the participants in the making of criminal justice policy
Criminal justice policy is concerned with the implementation of decisions that lead to enforcement of law to prosecute individuals who are involved in criminal activates. The process of putting these criminals behind the bar for correction reason requires good policies that will ensure justice is achieved. It is a long process that requires full support of legal systems that deal with enactment of law. The main concerned areas of criminal justice include prosecution, supervision, defense, supervision, apprehension and incarceration (Bob, 2004). These key areas must apply criminal justice policies to ensure that law and order is maintained in running of government affairs. Criminal justice involves practices and government institutions that are directly involved at upholding social behavior, controlling crime, sanctioning violators of law and deterrence. The system applies policies such as criminal penalties and through the use of rehabilitation centers.
The system calls for corporation of different individuals from various sectors but the common concerned is the legal system. Makers of criminal justice policy include three main participants that are law enforcers who are the police, corrections that include parole, probation, jails or prisons and adjudication institutions like courts. Human rights bodies and other experts who have knowledge in law also contribute to policies that help to solve criminal matters. These experts are concerned with making of policies that will lead to search of criminal justice (Bob, 2004). In law, justice delayed is justice denied and therefore good policies must be put in place to promote justice in the society. When the makers of criminal justice policies structure guidelines that are good, the rate of criminal is reduced in the society because violators of law are convicted and put behind the bars. In America, the role of criminal justice system is to protect individuals rights and ensure that fairness is observed when giving verdict about criminal offences.
DQ3 Identify and analyze the different public policy models used to explain the decision-making process.
There are different public policy models that are used as a way of explaining the process of decision making process. All people have to make decisions from period to period and these decisions results from policies. There is always limited time of formulating problems to address public problems this means that the concerned parties must apply good decision making models. One of the best decision making model is rationality. This is a decision making model that has been sufficient in achieving goals within given constraints or conditions. It is an efficient way of policy implementation process that leads to achievement of positive results.
There are two forms of rationality models, that is, substantive rationality that leads to achievement of goals that are rational and procedural rationality which is dependent on some procedures put in place to achieve particular goals. Another model is the use of facts as a way of achieving good results and meeting certain goals. To acquire facts about a given issue, administrators need to do thorough research (Morrone, Lohner, 2002). Means is another policy making model which is an instrument used to give satisfaction when making decisions. The means to apply in decision making depends on internal values. Another type of decision making model is the application of values. Values in this aspect mean perceptions towards ones choice. Every individual has plans for setting goals as per priorities and they act upon life situations as per their own values. The government as an entity must weigh and balance values in different departments so as to achieve set goals.
Provision of reliable security to the citizens of a given nation is the most basic duty of a government. It is due to this that many laws and national security policies have been and are still being formulated and executed by our government. The levels of criminology and terrorism threatens in the American nation call for the need to have effective structures in place for ensuring that a president implements the policies on which he was elected (Adams). Such national security policies include fight against terrorism and criminology in the society. It is inline with the great concern for national security that this paper is written. The author in particular looks at the importance of responding to the border, terror and port as well as organized crime national security policies.
The president should effective respond to the national policy on terrorism. This is because terrorism threatens the ultimate realization of sustainable development in our nation (Adams). Even with the many contradicting debate on the fight against terrorism, the sustainable security of our citizens should not be overlooked. It is to be realized here that any reluctance in our governments efforts in fighting terrorism could open up the nation to new and more serious terror attacks.
The problem of external insecurity threats in America has been closely attributed to vulnerability of our borders and ports (Evans and Jeffrey). It is to be noted here that the American nation is increasingly experiencing large numbers of illegal immigrants. This means that national security policies on border and port protection are way far below expectations in effectiveness. It is based on this reasoning that any failure by the government to reinforce its border and port guard policies will ultimately fail the struggle for realizing sustainable security in the nation. Such border and port security failures risks potential terrorism attacks as well as increased criminology in the society (Adams). It has been established that most criminal activities in the American nation are carried out by illegal immigrants in the quest for realizing survival means. Therefore, there is need for our president to respond with much concern for security by executing the border and port security policies if sustainable security for the American citizens is to be realized.
Another important national security policy is the fight against organized crimes in the nation (Homeland Security). Statistical information has evidently shown that the high levels of criminology in the American nation are a direct result of the presence of organized crime. These groups do not only engage in illegal businesses but also threaten the fair and just existence of the citizens of America. It is to be realized that organized crime has lately claimed as a potential unpreventable terrorism attack in the nation (Homeland Security). This is because with their well established networks, any possible teaming with terrorist groups could open the nation to greater security threat than never before. There is thus much need for the president to oversee the effective execution of the organized crime national security policies.
In conclusion, it is evidently clear that terrorist attacks are a great threat to the American nation. This is further complicated by the increasing dominance of organized crime groups in overtaking government responsibilities in the society. The president should thus not only respond to the terrorism fight policies but also ensure the effectiveness of our cross border and port security policies.
The concept of idealism as known in our modern society is marked with varied controversial debates. The proponent of this concept belief that it is in the mind or human thoughts were the nature of reality is found. This means that the only thing than can be claimed as the ultimate reality lies in our mental ideas and consciousness. It is however to be noted that the concept is quite contradictory with other philosophical concepts. Opponents of the concept claim that it contradicts the concept of perception which claims that the external world does exist and is absolutely independent of either human knowledge or consciousness. Idealism is also found to contradict with the philosophy of the mind which regards the ultimate reality to be based on tangible things. Nevertheless, the theory of idealism has gained much weight in upholding to personal goals in live as it entails thinking of existence as perfection both in existence and reality.
This paper is written as a discussion of the concept or theory of idealism. The author gives a critical discussion on the origin of the theory and its primary developers as well as why it was developed. A summary of the main points of idealism is also given.
Where and who developed the idealism theory
The idea of idealism has been closely associated with Plato. This has been based on the fact that he was the first person to sufficiently convince the human community of the concept of ideas in connection with reality in his theory of forms or simply ideas in the dictionary of sensible perception (Ryn, 1999, p. 42). It is however worth to be stated that the concept had been in existence long before Plato. According to Mann (2002) Antiphon in his philosophical writing claimed the concept of seeing time as a mental thought rather than a substance (p. 134). This has been interpreted by many philosophers who claim that according to Antiphon time meant an internal mental perception of reality as opposed to an external objector, the ultimate reality. Nevertheless, Plato is highly praised for his great work in explaining and qualifying the idealism theory. According to Ryn (1999) In his theory about the doctrine of thoughts, Plato sufficiently claims that ideas of forms are independent of the human mind in existence but are quite influential in the conclusive nature of human beings with respect to reality (p. 56). Since according to the theory of idealism the ideal reality lies in the doctrine of thoughts, Plato sufficiently qualifies this when he claimed that the ultimate reality does not lie in the non-ideal.
Another developer of the idealism theory in the ancient time was Plotinus and his philosophical conclusion of the soul as being maker of the world through series of steps from eternity to time (Chow, 1998, p. 146). According to his concept of reality, Plotinus claimed that the universe lies in the mind and soul and thus there exists no time behold the soul. This concept of idealism has received many contributions from varied modern philosophers like Leibniz, Fichte, Hegel and Kant among many others.
Why the idealism theory was developed
It was, and still is a crucial concern of every member in our society on the ultimate realization of realty. It is evidently rightly claimed that the idealism theory was, but a way of convincing people that by their day to day activities and execution of duties, they are experiencing the requirements of the ultimate reality (Mcdonagh, 1999, p. 24). This is basically the reason the conception of the idealism theory in our society. It is nevertheless to be established that the theory of idealism has evidently found much application in the society particularly the American nation. Historian evidence has clearly shown that the sustainable development both politically and economically should be based on idealism theory. It is indeed a direct result of such that president Woodrow had it that the political success of the American nation will always be realized by creating interest in the underlying principles and expectations of the nation (Mann, 2002, p. 151). Although the concept of idealism was much involved in the British colonial era, the American government through their idealistic foreign policies have sufficient proved much of implementing the theory. It is to be noted here that the ultimate success of any human being is greatly dependent on the successful realization of his or her dreams. It is due to this that the human quest to succeed at the expense of others in the global society that the concept of idealism came into being.
Conclusion
It has been sufficiently proved that idealism is one of the most successful philosophical concepts in the human community. It is only by striving to realize what is in ones perception or mental thinking that reality is to be found (Hylton, 1992, p. 161). The theory of idealism according to Plato evidently claims that there exists no reality behold the soul. The soul and human mind entails the human ability to thinking and act responsibly in the society. Such are also responsible for relating reality to human perceptions. It is thus true based on this reasoning that death is the ultimate end of the individuals ability to determine the ultimate reality in life.
There are no permanent friends or enemies in international politics, only permanent interests, this is the ideology which has served as the base of international politics for years and still does. In hope to prove this statement is still applicable to new international politics, Kenneth Waltz has made an attempt to develop an argument in favor of realism in his article Structural Realism after the Cold War. Waltz article is an answer for those who believe that new world order requires new and improved theories to be governed and a departure from structural realism for democracy, interdependence and international institutions prevailing in the world are making it a better place and which leaves no requirement of realism in international politics. . The focus of the article is to illustrate the influence of the powerful and developed states on the weak states through the descriptions of these variables.
The article is opens with the present conception of the international politics students, declaring realism to be obsolete and implying that changing times require change in governing theories new and improved theories would be fit for new international political world. This is the focus of the article the article is an answer for all of those who believe realism to be obsolete due to the strengthening of democracies, interdependence and international institutions. One might ask that why only these variables, so the answer is that the previously mentioned variables are perceived to be to be the saviors of international politics from the structural realism. These variables would make this world a better and more peaceful place with equality and prosperity for all. The author has employed a theoretical approach in analyzing these variables. Waltz concludes that these variables are just a cover up by the world powers to facilitate their purposes in the world. Waltz accomplished this with support from the empirical evidences he was able to put forth a very strong and convincing argument as he individually analysis those variables. The variables are evaluated as the following
Democracy and Peace
Democracy is now perceived as the savior of the world for it preserves peace among states. The rational behind the dissemination of democratic rule is that, a democratic state would never wage a war or arose any conflicts which might lead to military hostilities between two democratic states. But the evidence shows that this was not at all true for Some American scholars thought that Wilhelmine
Germany was the very model of a modern democratic state with a wide suffrage, honest elections, a legislature that controlled the purse, competitive parties, a free press, and a highly competent bureaucracy. But in the French, British, and American view after August of 1914, Germany turned out not to be a democracy of the right kind.( Waltz 3) So later it was added that, a democratic state would not get into a war with the other democratic state provided that it is govern by liberal democracy. Even that statement was short lived, Waltz illustrates that how the world powers have used this tool of democracy to influence their opinions on others claiming that democracy would only indulge in war to maintain democracy for it is a solution for the states to reside in peace (where as un democratic states are a threat to the peace of the world). Waltz in criticizing the democratic usurp of a weak state by a powerful state, states the
Citizens of democratic states tend to think of their countries as good, aside from what they do, simply because they are democratic. Citizens of democratic states also tend to think of undemocratic states as bad, aside from what they do, simply because they are undemocratic. Democracies promote war because they at times decide that the way to preserve peace is to defeat non-democratic states and make them democratic. (7)
American intrusion in Chile is an example of that.
Interdependence
Interdependence is the dependency of states on the other states because of its market value. It is the relationship of peace and profit. As Waltz states
Now in pursuit of peace and profit trading state is replacing political military state.it promotes peace by multiplying contacts among states and contributes to mutual understanding (10-11)
But in reality, interdependence creates an uncomfortable and unjust relationship among states. For the powerful and developed state would always have an advantage over the weak and under-developing state. It is a dependent variable, as the weak and needier would always look up to the stronger and lees needy state for guidance or more like directions. The author quotes American interference around the globe as an example. He perceives that interdependence is a tool used by the Americans to maintain their hold on the worlds economy (supported by empirical evidence).
International institutions
According to Waltz, international institutions are made to serve their creators such as NATO or the IMF. The author has used the example of NATO as the primary source to support his argument that once an organization is created it takes a life of its own, it is autonomous. Reviewing the history of NATO, which was a North Atlantic Treaty Organization, has lost its original purpose today. The allegation posed on international institutions is that they serve national purposes of their creators and by that the author refers to the American influence on international institutions as well.
So with the elaborate review of these variables, which were the base of demanding a new theory to work with in the new international political scenario, proved to be just a cover up by the world powers in deceiving the world that these variables are the saviour of peace and balance in the world. These variables are a camouflage, a sugar coated deception for the under-developing and weak nations that they share equality of power and influence in the world. These variables are just a tool for the powerful states to maintain their hold on the world. Therefore, the structural realism prevails in the international politics it has just been given a different shape. This article has explicitly stated the methodology of international politics and its purposes. This article proves to be decisive in developing mature understanding of the international politics today and what theories it applies and the evidences provided makes the article convincing. Concluding that international relations will always be governed by national interests as it has been in the past and at present as well.
The election of U.S. President Barrack Obama came at a critical time in the history of the United States. The Democrat replaced a Republican thick in the midst of the worst economic crises to have rocked the country since the Great Depression of the 1930s. And while the country wobbled under the weight of the economic disaster, millions of U.S dollars were still being spent on the Global War on Terror which former President George Bush had launched in response to the terrorist attacks of September 2001. It is in the thick of these major events that the 2008 General Elections were held, bringing to power the first African-American US president.
It would be true to observe that the two events contributed to Obamas victory. Polls results showed that the former president had lost most of the popularity he enjoyed in his first term, even some members of his Republican party (MSNBC Newport). Obama thus inherited an economy which had either hit the rock bottom, or was very near there, precipitating popular support for change of leadership. Predictably, Democrats won more seats and currently form the majority in the Congress. It can this be expected that Obama will find the support he so critically needs to implement his agenda. The numerical advantage in the House will, in the meantime, earn him support for the agenda. However, this support may wane if there arises infighting among the Democrat law-makers, and Obama makes good his threat of banning pet projects or earmarks introduced by the members (CNN). A divided Democratic Party would make it difficult for the president to push ahead with his agenda.
His immediate predecessor, George W. Bush had been accused of employing expansive assertions of the inherent powers of the presidency, often earning himself and his policies spirited opposition from the lawmakers (Mann Rosen). While his party had more seats in the legislature, President Bush still used his executive powers more to propel his agenda, particularly in relation to the support and addition of troops deployed to the Middle East for the War on Terror.
That the famous 911 terrorist attacks on the United States of America was based on strained relations between America and the Muslim community is evident. A brief look into the history of the aforementioned attacks reveals that it involved the use of four hijacked American jetliners. The said commercial airplanes were en route to Los Angels and San Francisco from Boston, Washington, D.C and Newark. The first target to be struck during this attack was the World Trade Centres North Tower at 8.46 in the morning using Flight 11. At about 9.03 am the South Tower was hit using the American Airlines Flight 175, while Flight 77 Airline was flown by hijackers at 9.37 am to the Pentagon. The fourth plane belonging to the United States Flight 93 crashed in Pennsylvania near Shanksville at 10.03 am although its target was believed to be the White House or Americas capital. Thought brief and fast, there is the general consensus that the said attacks resulted to a high number of casualties. Statistics from a various sources indicate that there was 2, 995 deaths with the inclusion of the 19 hijackers while the number of victims stood at 2,976.
Furthermore, it was established that approximately 90 nations lost their citizens as a result of these attacks. It is estimated that about 17, 400 persons were at the World Trade Centre Complex during the attack with the vast majority of those affected being those that were above or at the impact zone at the time. Other than loss of lives and resultant to several individuals, it is note worthy that these attacks caused a lot of damage to the infrastructure. By so doing, the economy was negatively affected in terms of reconstruction in addition to general environmental pollution. Perhaps it is imperative to note that there are conspiracy theories as advanced by various proponents. In particular, these proponents hold the view that persons within America actually possessed crucial and detailed information with respect to these attacks although they deliberately opted not to act. To this end, this group is of the opinion that certain people outside of Al-Qaeda links planned, assisted or carried out these attacks. Yet still, another theory advances the view that indeed the World Trade Centre Complex collapsed not because of the planes crashing but that its demolition was as a result of explosives. This became to be known as the controlled demolition hypothesis an aspect that was rejected by the American Society of Civil Engineers as well as the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Against the backdrop of their researches, they deduced that the collapse of the Towers was in fact caused by impacts of the jets due to their high speeds together with subsequent fires.
As it has been stated above, these attacks were founded on deep hatred by the extremist Muslims towards the American community. With this in mind, it is therefore of importance to inquire the root cause of this deep hatred by the said Muslim community in the context of Americas Foreign Policy. Though majority of individuals would hold the view that the Muslim community is irrational by turning against the United States of America yet it is dedicated to protecting and delivering them from the bondages of tyranny, it is justifiable to note that Americas foreign policies have failed in restoring the much needed tranquility in the Muslim community. More often than not, Americas foreign policy in the Muslim community has resulted to the massive deaths as well as wanton destruction of property and infrastructure. At the same time, Americas insistence on asserting its presence within the Middle East is perceived to be a direct violation of sovereignty of this region. This helped to provide the much needed impetus and motivation for the planning and execution of these attacks by the Muslim extremists under the tutelage of Al-Qaeda group.
In an attempt to voice their concerns, this group through its leader Osama Bin Laden in a fatwa that was issued in the year 1998 was vehemently opposed to Americas occupation of its holy lands of Muslim community namely Saudi Arabia specifically the Arabian peninsula. In particular, America is accused of plundering riches within it, dictating rulers, humiliating people, terrorizing surrounding Muslim nations in addition to using the area as a base to fight the Muslim community. A detailed analysis of the fatwa brings to the fore the underlining concern from the Muslim community with regards to Americas oppression and exploitation of resources from the Middle East. In this regard, the Middle East is perceived to be taken as a business asset under the disguise of ensuring democracy within the region. At the same, Americas invasion of this region often results to massive deaths of civilians despite the fact that its intentions might be good and aimed at restoring democracy within the said region. It is the inability by Americas foreign policy to prevent the loss of innocent lives that aggravated this hatred. One cannot afford to overlook Americas involvement in the Gulf War which culminated into invasion of Iraq. To the Muslim community, actions of the United States of America were taken to be a deliberate onslaught on the community within the past three decades aimed at eliminating them. At this point, it is perhaps important to ask just how many Muslims have been killed due to the Americas foreign policy mistakes in the Middle East
The chapters of the book all indicate or underscore how Chinese nationalism has evolved throughout Chinas history. In looking at how China defines nationalism, it is more than the mere love of country, but also as pride in ones country for everything that it is and along with that, an antagonistic attitude towards those perceived as rivals or threats to its interests and security.
When the communists under Mao Zedong took over power in China in 1949, they vowed to erase the stigma brought about by the century of humiliation China had to endure and at the same time elevate China back to its place as a great nation. After Maos death and the rise of Deng Xiaoping, China was finally able to get out of its slump and aggressively pursue economic development and after Dengs death in 1997, China has been able to arrive at the level of prosperity it wanted and is still asking for more. Along with this increasing prosperity, Chinese nationalism has evolved. Mao-inspired nationalism gave way to popular nationalism. This was one of the legacies left behind by Deng. Even though the Chinese people were not granted poltical rights to change their government, they were still granted individual rights which made them more loyal to the government than they would have had Maos policies continued. Deng also extolled pride in anything made in China as well as erase the stigma of the past. This was evident as steps had been taken in erasing a century of humiliation when Hong Kong (1997) and Macau (1999) were returned respectively by Britain and Portugal to China which was widely celebrated. The turnover of these territories was regarded as a moral victory on the part of the Chinese. This would be repeated again in Chinas successful hosting of the Summer Olympics in Beijing in 2008.
On the distaff side of this nationalism is a remnant of the May 4th Movement where the Chinese people have not forgotten the sins of the foreign powers in humiliating China and reasserting their pride and the resolve that they will not take anymore bullying from the West nor be deceived by their duplicity. This was shown in a series of incidents involving the United States and China, beginning with the accidental bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Yugoslavia in 1999. The Chinese people did not buy into the American explanation that it was an accident and regarded the attack as deliberate and demanded a redress. A similar incident would occur two years later when a Chinese fighter aircraft collided with an American surveillance plane resulting in the death of the Chinese pilot and damage to the aircraft and eventual detention of its crew. Once again, there was public outcry over this alleged affront to Chinese sovereignty and honor and the United States government had to make an apology to secure the release of the aircrew (Gries 2004 14, 98). Based on these two incidents, China is asserting its national pride and wouls refuse to allow history to repeat itself by bowing down to the wills and whims of the west. Its strong demand for apology and redress is a clear sign that they will no longer allow themselves to be exploited or bullied again and the strange thing about it is they assert this even if they are wrong.
In trying to analyze Chinese (popular) nationalism, Sinologists see it as a case of Middle Kingdom Mentality, the kind of attitude reminescent of Chinas imperial past where everything emanates from China and all barbarians (outsiders) must kowtow before her. One peculiar thing about it is that while China demands apology for any affront to its pride and sovereignty, it does not apologize when they commit it. They are sending a message that they do not owe anything to anyone. Another peculiar feature about this nationalism is whenever they seek redress from anyone, they often depict themselves as victims such as the case of demanding reparations from the Japanese and seeking redress of American aggression or arrogance in Yugoslavia and Hainan (Gries 2004 14, 90, 98). It is a very clever move by the government. By giving their citizens (limited) rights and invoking nationalism, they are able to stay in power. But looking at it from the Chinese perspective, it is the fulfillment of their wish to see China become strong again.
