Political Science

Democracy in America is a general study on the democratic institutions of the United States in the early part of the 19th century. It is, perhaps, considered, as one of the foremost authoritative critique on American democracy. Some scholars considered the work as the foundation of economic sociology and political economy.

Background
In 1831, the French government sent Alexis de Tocqueville and Gustave de Beaumont to study the American prison system. Arriving in New York City in May of the same year, the two spent nine months traveling in the United States. They took notes not only on prisons but on almost all aspects of the American polity. In February 1832, the two returned to France and submitted their report. In 1835, the first volume of the work was published. The book exposed the misgivings, weaknesses, strengths, and dangers of American democracy. When it was read in the United States, politicians and statesmen alike were struck by the relative accuracy of the report.

Concepts, Applications, and General Critique
Tocqueville observed that American society is characterized by general equality of conditions which means lack of clearly delineated social class, relatively even distribution of wealth and parity of citizenship. As Tocqueville noted this primary fact exercises on the whole course of society, by giving a certain direction to public opinion, and a certain tenor to the laws by imparting new maxims to the governing powers, and peculiar habits to the governed. I speedily perceived that the influence of this fact extends far beyond the political character and the laws of the country, and that it has no less empire over civil society than over the Government it creates opinions, engenders sentiments, suggests the ordinary practices of life, and modifies whatever it does not produce. The more I advanced in the study of American society, the more I perceived that the equality of conditions is the fundamental fact from which all others seem to be derived, and the central point at which all my observations constantly terminated (1).

For Tocqueville, general equality of conditions is the epitome of modern democracy. The evolution of the state is marked by a constant drive towards equality and stability. The state and all its constitutive parts are driven towards self realization. This realization is based on the idea that privilege and heredity are but means to perpetuate economic and political inequality. Tocqueville continued
The different relations of men became more complicated and more numerous as society gradually became more stable and more civilized. Thence the want of civil laws was felt and the order of legal functionaries soon rose from the obscurity of the tribunals and their dusty chambers, to appear at the court of the monarch, by the side of the feudal barons in their ermine and their mail. Whilst the kings were ruining themselves by their great enterprises, and the nobles exhausting their resources by private wars, the lower orders were enriching themselves by commerce. The influence of money began to be perceptible in State affairs (2).

From a historical perspective, however, it is clear that the American society is marked by increasing inequality. What are the forms of inequality There was regional inequality between Northern States and Southern States. The North was relatively more prosperous than the South. The industries of the North had no need for slave labor in order to perpetuate. In contrast, the South needed slave labor to operate its large plantations. The North had also a larger income base, derived primarily from the production of capital and intermediate products. There was also class inequality. Plantation owners had an aggregate income equal to one-eighth of the nations income. Industrialists controlled about two-thirds of the nations capital. The poor, slaves, and urban middle class controlled roughly one-fourth of the countrys wealth.

However, it is illogical to assume that Tocquevilles concept has no direct significance. It is an ideal type, meaning it can be used to measure social and political inequalities within a state. In short, it is not an actual depiction of reality, but a measure of social dynamics.

Perhaps, one of Tocquevilles most famous concepts is the tyranny of the majority construct. In simple terms, tyranny of the majority refers to a condition wherein the decisions of the state are made by a majority under a system that would place that majoritys interests above a dissenting minority interest. In this system, the actions of the majority are synonymous with that of tyrants and despots. As Tocqueville rightly observed

A majority taken collectively may be regarded as a being whose opinions, and most frequently whose interests, are opposed to those of another being, which is styled a minority. If it be admitted that a man, possessing absolute power, may misuse that power by wronging his adversaries, why should a majority not be liable to the same reproach Men are not apt to change their characters by agglomeration nor does their patience in the presence of obstacles increase with the consciousness of their strength. And for these reasons I can never willingly invest any number of my fellow-creatures with that unlimited authority which I should refuse to any one of them (133).

Tocqueville argued that the American political system is not immune to this condition. He observed that in most state legislatures, the interests of the majority, however, unnecessary or irrational, are transformed into public policies. The electoral system, according to Tocqueville, is also used to perpetuate the interests of the majority. The elected officials succumbed to the will of the majority because of the derived mandate. Elected officials derive their legitimacy or mandate to govern from the people. It follows that elected officials must follow the will of the majority. As Tocqueville argued

When an individual or a party is wronged in the United States, to whom can he apply for redress If to public opinion, public opinion constitutes the majority if to the legislature, it represents the majority, and implicitly obeys its injunctions if to the executive power, it is appointed by the majority, and remains a passive tool in its hands the public troops consist of the majority under arms the jury is the majority invested with the right of hearing judicial cases and in certain States even the judges are elected by the majority. However iniquitous or absurd the evil of which you complain may be, you must submit to it as well as you can (135).

The phrase tyranny of the majority is a general motif in the study of politics and statecraft. Indeed, Tocquevilles concept is often used as an analytical framework in studying political dynamics and group behavior. In a broad sense, the political spectrum may be viewed as a matrix of opposing or complementary interests. In a narrow sense, it can be viewed as a continuum of interests. In any case, Tocquevilles concept of the tyranny of the majority is not just an ideal type it is both a theoretical and practical framework of analysis.

Tocqueville also developed his own idea of enlightened self-interest. According to him, persons who act for the common good will ultimately serve their own good. In the American polity, an American with a sense of enlightened self interest is a person who values social good while at the same time expects something good from political action. Again, Tocqueville observed

The Americans, on the other hand, are fond of explaining almost all the actions of their lives by the principle of self-interest rightly understood they show with complacency how an enlightened regard for themselves constantly prompts them to assist one another and inclines them willingly to sacrifice a portion of their time and property to the welfare of the state. In this respect I think they frequently fail to do themselves justice, for in the United States as well as elsewhere people are sometimes seen to give way to those disinterested and spontaneous impulses that are natural to man but the Americans seldom admit that they yield to emotions of this kind they are more anxious to do honor to their philosophy than to themselves (Book VIII, 172).

Tocquevilles concept of enlightened self-interest has had become the foundation of modern political ethics. This concept can be used to analyze a wide range of political behaviors (from the perspective of ethics). However, few political scientists use this concept to explain aggregate behavior.

Conclusion
Democracy in America is not only an analytical discussion of the nature of the American polity it is also, in a sense, a general scientific inquiry on the dynamics of American democracy. Indeed, much of the concepts used in the book are still in use today.

Labor Party is a contemporary British political, social and economic force that remodeled the politics of the United Kingdom into a European Union main contender for development and democracy success. Tony Blair as the leader of Labor party is attributed as the force behind the new economic and political change in Europe. The partys Third way philosophy came has enhanced some form of government decentralization procedures that have produced amazing results in the education sector, reduced government administrative expenditure, decentralized government policy making process while adopting child development policies that have enhanced the economic development of the kingdom. Monetary and investment reforms were made with the establishment of healthcare projects aimed at promoting social equality.

Service delivery and social life has significantly changed in the United Kingdom with the launch of better child and family policy. Notably, pre-school facilities have been expanded by the Third Way government in an action aimed at eradication poverty and ignorance. Child care was placed under the public financing scheme in order to provide effective services to the general public. The government instituted pre-kindergarten and nursery facilities at an affordable price in the hope of revitalizing the education system. According to Teresa Smith, Effective Provision of Preschool Education (EPPE) research has applauded provision of subsidized education has change the lifestyle of disadvantaged families thus increasing children education that in return affects that economic value of the kingdom. The 2006 Childcare act set a framework for local authorities that stipulated the provision of inclusive social services to children under the age of five was mandatory. Therefore as stipulated in the Every Child Matters, the government agencies are under the obligation to provide health services, education, accommodation, safe upbringing and alleviating of economic differences between the advantaged and the disadvantages. Teresa (2007) maintains that the Labor government changed the family policy in order to include children in the economic balance in order to achieve uniform development. Child poverty has been viewed by the government as the cause of poor performance in schools-as children from poor quarters underachieved in education coupled up with poor medical care and accommodation that is later reflected as a source of national poverty. Therefore in order for Britain to gain admiration of the European Union the child policy can rated as a change in the UK economic pattern as more funding to preschool achievement has been rolled out.
Further, the New Labor government admiring quality of government services delivery and in order to acquire appropriate tool to measure whether the services got to the right people in 1998, the Public Service Agreement (PSA) reform was quantified to engage in child poverty reduction by quarter the previous financial year. Jack Diamond (2008) maintains that the government agency is charged with the responsibility to promote agreement between the public and the government in regard to harmonizing government and people led priorities. PSA holds the authority to define department responsibility, performance and value for money in achieving government policies.

The third way is seen as a political journey out of the conservative Thatcher governance that ended in the early 1990s. The conservative government introduced Healthcare reforms that created a competitive provision of health services with the government financing. Third way ideology of revisionism healthcare improvement introduced in 1997 by the Labor Party, as explained by Valeria Della Rosa (1999) changed the face of competition bringing about order by enhancing cooperation and partnerships in the provision of National Health services. The main campaign that faced the healthcare provision change was to include fairness and equity in the Labor Party led reforms. Hough the reform was intended to separate competition inefficiency from the government health care funded expenditure in order to bring about mutual beneficial cooperation. Nevertheless, John Hills (2009) claims that health inequalities have widened due to increased widened gap in income earning. The third way philosophy whose main agenda was to build a lasting social democracy that encompassed social order in provision of services with equity was achieved in Healthcare reforms.
Employment of the jobless youth and creation of jobs that could bring about social equity were initiated by the Labor party manifesto that identified the government had the responsibility to provide viable employment opportunities as an incentive and motivating factor to pull out underclass citizens out of government dependence welfare services. The leader of the Third way of thinking Tony Blair introduced a new minimum wage scheme that would ease up the issue of the widening gap in national remuneration. In a move to alleviate poverty the governments New Deal Plan has encouraged social equity and order that in return led to financial freedom for the citizens of United Kingdom.   

The New Labor proposed an economic reform agenda that targeted to reform the Central Bank. Tony Blair noted in the New Labor Manifesto of the UK Labor Party (1997) that there new philosophical outlook intended to direct borrowed money into investment that could revive the neglected rail roads and streamline other economic factors. Later Chancellor Gordon Brown as reported by Simon Bulmer an Oxford Journal   is attributed to have made a decision that advocated for the commission of a single Euro currency that could successively rejuvenate the UK economy. The UK led the deliberations to ensure the financial success of the European Union while back at home employment, investment and entrepreneurship policies were put in place.
The third way stimulated development in an effort to do away with tax and expenditure tendencies that invited inflation. Instead the Tony Blair led campaign stressed the need to implement a fiscal policy that involved the appeal that established a flexible labor market that could rejuvenate the economy through employment creation. As a measure to counter poverty due to ill-distribution of wealth, the third way considered restructuring of the tax laws whereby working tax credits was launched. Accounting to Malcolm Sawyer (2006) of the University of Leed, within the first one year of the third way operation poverty and unemployment were significantly cut down. The New Labor provided an infinite microcredit atmosphere that reversed inflation for economic growth from the stable 2.9 growth rate that the conservative government maintained. Sawyer (2006) insists that the tax reforms and flexible labor market improved the redistribution of wealth that in return reflected a falling rate of unemployment.

The New Labor initiated the Private Finance Initiative (PFI) that according to Sawyer (2006), PFI as part of the financial reform agenda is the key to high interest in public entrepreneur activities. Many hospitals, schools and other initiatives were put up in accordance with the PFI policy. Another laudable economic monetary policy that the third way undertook was to move interest rate decision making authority to the Bank of England that credibly controlled inflation rate consequently attracting investors. Proactive policy management promoted investment that in turn led to employment of many youths and sole families under the family policy. Sawyer (2006) agues that Private Finance Initiative increased public demand for a flexible labor market led to stead employment. Living standard and household economic power progressively improved the governments targets to redistribute wealth in order to acquire social democracy and equity.   

In conclusion, the third way visionary success delivered radical reforms in the political and socio-economic sector. The British GDP improved with eradication of poverty in school children, creation of employment real opportunities in a reformed flexible labor force. The third way was a reformist agenda with monetary and cooperation motives aimed at preparing the United Kingdom as the most equal European Union supremacy display of prosperity.   

Security Policy
A national security policy of United States for a long period of time has been to conduct preemptive strikes on its enemies. Preemptive terror strikes are attacks on the enemies conducted to ward off any potential threat arising from enemy states of agents. This policy of the United States has been introduced largely since the September 11, 2001 attacks on the world trade center and reason put forward by the US government for such behavior is that it wants to protect its people against such future incidents.

The US has already implemented this policy and has been conducting pre-emptive strikes on countries it feels are planning terrorist activities against US. The United States further sees its duty to safeguard the interest of other states against terrorism by following the enemies to the roots and destroying them.

The Bush Doctrine, was the name given to this foreign policy during the time of Bushs administration when Bush announced attacks on Al-Qaeda and Taliban members in Afghanistan and against Saddam Hussein in Iraq (Kolodziej, 2006). The controversial aspect of this policy is that US can try to eliminate any potential enemy even in the threat from them is not immediate. Furthermore, planning done by enemies is not considered enough proof to punish them since in legal system, a punishment is given only when a crime has been committed or a law has been broken. However, now amid controversy this policy is a part of US national security policy.

Department of Homeland Security
The Department of Homeland Security is basically a cabinet department of the government of United States whose main purpose is to guard the territories of the country from any attacks from the side of terrorists and also to look out and react to natural disasters. The Department of Homeland Security was created on November 25, 2002 which resulted in the reorganization of the government of the United States along with some federal agencies.

Talking about the mission of The Department of Homeland Security, it focuses on to lead as a department or organization that has to protect and secure the country from any major mishaps, and to preserve the freedom of the people (dhs.gov, 2010). The rationale behind its creation is to shelter the country against the terrorists or the countries who look forward to indulge in and create chaos in the ways of life of the people of United States. Moreover, contingency plans and actions are also taken by this department in order to counter the hazards and disasters that might come naturally. The department is also responsible for strengthening the internal components of itself to make the most of its functions and performance. It communicates the activities that seem to be integrated with other components that usually have different goals and functions. The department gets unified to guard the American people and country as a whole. Finally, The Department of Homeland Security also has the responsibilities in its agenda to strengthen or help grow the economy and preserving the rights, freedoms, and liberties of the people  whether they are minorities or majorities.

PART I
ESSAY I
Man since the classical age has evolved to become so sophisticated in terms of culture, social interaction and civilization in general. In The Geography of Nowhere (1993) Kunstler took on the blandness and monoculture of the American suburb in which he expounds on the ways in which American cities and towns make us bad. From the stone age to the iron age and now the information age profound changes have occurred in the way man live, travel, eat and even how he communicates. During the archaic age man never had to worry about how he lived and its effect upon the environment and himself. Given the technological development, today plans have to be put together to support the increase in the number of cars which seems almost at par with the human population growth. This makes urban designing of paramount importance as the increase in the population causes lots of problems such as diseases, pollution, crime and so forth which stem out of human activities.

Cities and towns today have to plan on how to use the land for building residential houses, factories and transport systems. This is because, with almost over six billion people on the planet today, the cities are becoming overwhelmed with excessive pollution and destruction of the ecosystems. The modern lifestyles as Wheeler (1997) argued contribute a lot to the increasing social inequality also destroys ecosystems due to climate changes which results from pollution. It is only right for planners to advocate sustainable cities.  In his book Home from nowhere Kuntler (1995) remarked that while suburbs are a profoundly uncivil living arrangement, our cities are increasingly remade as if to intentionally prevent the human interaction from which civil society grows. It is hard, he writes, to imagine a culture less concerned than ours with the things that make life worth living, like clean, tree-lined streets and self-contained neighborhoods.

However, sustainable development is a concept that is very young in many minds and still proves to be a challenge for many cities. Sustainable cities are very hard to build. Compact, effective and efficient land use, better accesses and less use of automobiles to keep pollution in check, efficient use of resources and waste removal, natural systems restoration, planned living environment and good housing, a healthy social ecology, a sustainable economy, the involvement of the community in preservation of culture and wisdom isnt at all easy(Wheeler 1998). Urban planners have always tried to implement widely accepted social programs and policies. This is because as Davreu (1978) stated that sustainability must be widely supported by the society in question prior to the start of the plan.
Developers today are using urbanist ideas to turn what we know as shopping malls into lifestyle centers.  As Blum put it, that they are modern shopping places which are designed to resemble city streets, restaurants with an outdoor atmosphere and spaces where people can rest. These centers also have a mix of uses which comprises of housing for tenants and offices (Blum 2005). Blum continued that the most discernible theme at lifestyle centers is urbanism itself.  Unlike in Kuntlers framework, the new urbanism provides a framework for communication and joint decision-making in a structured process characterized by feed-back loops and it facilitates a learning process of all the stakeholders involved.

Because urban design is about making a created vision a reality, then everyone is an expert at least in visualizing a quality place. As ways of counteracting sprawl, then a combination of a mixture of activities in less space is the way to go. Though Kunstler advocates the age social arrangements and the practice of building from the history and traditional meaning of building but the redirection of efforts, to create a kind of framework that contributes to the development and creation of quality places is inevitable.

It is clear that urban design, like any other design, as I have already stated should involve customers. These are people that live in the place in question and those likely to move in. This process aims at taking advantage of the consumer interests to foster cooperation, sharing of knowledge and planning and design processes. This is because the consumers have a better understanding of the issues that command local concerns and is a sure means to reduce possible antagonism from local communities to change. It is inevitable though when businesses are rapidly expanding as Davis said may bring about lack of common sense. Most urban developers dont involve the locals in the designing, thus ending up creating something which is completely for business purposes. Big buildings with even bigger places for cars are a common scenario in modern cities.

These developments in most cities have led to fractured communities and a loss of public spirit in communities across the America, according to Calthorpe. He writes, the American cities have lost their souls as the modern culture is taking root. He concerned himself with the segregation of people by age, income, ethnicity, as well as by family type due to the post- war development of the suburbs. Even the street, Calthorpe states, the most basic public space, is turned over for the accommodation of cars and the private world is more and more isolated within walled compounds.

It is very clear that a new aesthetic of place must be developed. A place that involves not just a change of design philosophy but also a host of other very practical considerations. As I have said before, from social effects and economic sustainability to environmental limits and political implications. It also means adopting a more unified and long-range approach as both Davis and Calthorpe advocate in order addressing the causes as well as symptoms. Such issues as open space preservation, congestion on highways, air quality, and affordable housing and infrastructure costs must be integrated and incorporated in the urban designing with the participation of every concerned party.

ESSAY 2
Intergovernmental relations have caused a lot of problems to the public not only in the history of America but in governments all over the world. Pelissero (2002) argued that the change of the general neighborhood pattern was characterized by an inevitable trend toward decline, frequently associated with the spread of districts occupied by more or less segregated ethnic and minority groups. Even though his study was only confined in New York but its impact was felt all over the country. In the late 50s the housing act authorized local governments to set up federally funded plans which would be for community renewal programs all over the city to determine the size of resources and renewal strategies allocation for different types of neighborhoods.

The shift in the federal policy from project specific and place-specific support can be seen as it was reflected in this community renewal program. Before this, the refusal of the Federal Housing Administration to finance the existing housing in neighborhoods resulted into urban riots of the 1960s (Myron, 1997). It seemed that a district will pass through a definite phases of development if it is not affected by other external forces which can ultimately change its use entirely. The gradual decline of the quality of people dwelling in the district over a period of time due to population expansion may result into intensive residential use of land which may cause the emergence of slums (Myron, 2002). Racial change in a neighborhood could result in very rapid decline of property values Babcock continues. Neighborhoods tend to decline in attractiveness over a substantial period of time, as the original residents are succeeded by others from lower economic levels. Transition, therefore, gradually results in poorer maintenance of properties and lower owner occupancy appeal. (FHA 1967, paragraph 71603.7).
 
This shows to what extent the intergovernmental relations have promulgated sprawl. The FHA in it Manual paragraph 920 acknowledged the exclusion of entire cities from some of the lenders lists of acceptable areas to fund. The more prioritized places were those with promising economic status. Consideration was given to the presence of tourism destination, political capital, trends of industrial employment or the educational center within a metropolitan area. This was subject to the method devised by the agency in order to analyze the economic base of cities and metropolitan regions that would supplement the risk ratings assigned to specific neighborhood locations. The Underwriting Manual concluded that single-industry areas are usually extremely hazardous, (FHA 1947, paragraph 1506(5)) and federal economic background ratings favored cities with a growing population and diversified economy.

Off course scholars and other concerned parties restated their concerns like in 1939 Homer Hoyt in his FHA study, The Structure and Growth of Residential Neighborhoods in American Cities, argued that the Northeast had the natural resources such as coal and iron and adequate transportation and also a good supply of water. Thus this was and ideal place to be prioritized, but unfortunately the outmigration of whites and low wage industries proved hazardous (Jacobs, 1961).

After the urban riots of the 1960s the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development used local planners to deliberately encourage the dispersal of low-income and African-American urban neighborhoods. This was followed by the eventual reuse of abandoned areas. The dialectical process of social change which may be understood as a post riot urban policy later became a method used to depopulate those areas which were considered to have social unrest (Porter, 1997). The growth patterns of metropolitan cities and their decline in the United States of America are a result of decisions on industrial locations, economic racism, and not to forget the suburban bias of federal highway and housing programs (Wiewel, Wim and Knapp, Gerrit-Jan 2005). The disparities between the growth and decline patterns of these metropolitan areas have been made wore by the neighborhood life-cycle theory, an evolving real estate appraisal concept used as a basis for decisions on urban planning.

Anthony Downs ( 1961) believed that if the trend of the flight to the suburbs by whites is to be checked, in the short-term, the only effective way would be to create a truly massive urban renewal program supported by the federal government. The program would have to be large enough to include neighborhoods of high-school-district size that will be reconstructed and replaced by newly-constructed developments occupied by middle-class residents who would initially establish high standards and maintain them henceforth.

The federal government and the local government have for ages contributed to the induction of sprawl patterns, urban disinvestment and the fractured metropolis. This is because of the influence of big corporations due to economic status of the area and the political capital. America has seen a lot of these effects in so many of its states and more so given the fact that racism was also a contributing factor.

PART II
Without a doubt for decades now Americas cities have been in decline. Despite the explosion of new government- spending programs designed to save these cities. However there are still some of the advocates think that the solution still lies with the regional governance (Jelier, Richard and Sands, Gary 2009). That means cities should annex their thriving suburbswith or without their consentor consolidates with their counties, thus creating cities without suburbs. He, ( Rusk) sees the cities declining being transformed to booming cities by imposing on the suburbanites to pay their for the costs of urban decline in his words their share.

There are some cities that have seen improvement through successfully annexing their suburbs or consolidated with their counties, but the political and legal obstacles are usually very prohibitive. Here Rusk suggests alternative ways to minimize economic segregation which includes a trace of racism which he thinks is the main problem in America. This view is also shared by Myron Orfield who also vests a solution on a plan that would put public housing projects in the suburbs. The argument that Rusk puts forward is that this plan would integrate the middle and lower classes into society, providing them with exposure and positive role models therein.

However, annexation is very much objectionable just as subsidizing housing in the neighborhoods. Thus the provision of incentives seems to be the solution to get the suburbs to cooperate. But this approach is very costly and more or less it is just another spending program. To make matters worse, this expensive proposal have support in high places (Jalier et.al 2009). While Rusk defends the uninvolvement of the federal government he still advocates the implementation of these types of programs through either the provision of federal dollars or new requirements on federal grants in aid. I agree with him that larger government may not be as efficient and as responsive as a service deliverer as smaller government. Studies have proved that large centralized government has higher unit costs of public services provision than a small decentralized one.

Rusk argues that his motivation in creating cities without suburbs is primarily the elimination of segregation in terms of race and economy. In the case of Orfield he argues that the regional planning, and fiscal equity which results from the distaste for waste of money, land, and human potential and the goal of less complex and more efficient government is the integrated solution to metropolitan problems (pg xviii).

Ignoring that centralization leads to inefficiency and higher costs, and that taxes have consequences, Rusks solution to the urban crisis is ultimately just an elaborately constructed house of cards meaning it has fatal flaws. He has failed to even consider that there is a possibility that many businesses and residents, faced with higher taxes after being annexed by their central city, and many would simply choose to move farther and farther away from the inner city to avoid those tax hikes as well.

Squires (2002) calls this intervention of the government to revitalize the declining inner cities as urban renewal. This included the transfer of subsidies to local agencies for slum clearance, housing construction and economic development. In his case the term urban renewal is the vehicle for improving the lives of the inner city dwellers. But just as in the case of Rusk when the spending spree by the government increases the taxes increase as that is where the government obtain the sources of funds. This in turn will hurt the very people that are supposed to be helped.

This is so because the tax base per house hold will increase by greater than regional averages making it harder and harder for the lower and middle classes (Kantor, Judd and Judd, Dennis, 2010). I do agree completely that regional reforms are of paramount importance, but what is missing here is the involvement of the people themselves. I have seen in many cases that when there is a situation, the government takes action to counter check but without involving from the grassroots the concerned parties. This is one of the major weaknesses. As most of us have seen or noticed that in most countries people dont trust the government.

The government is always seen as corrupt and insensitive to the needs of the people, especially the lower and middle classes. And taxes are the major factors, thus I recommend that the policies made to promote well being, combat sprawl, protect the countryside, and support urban vitality need to involve the target groups. The success in any approach that is used by the government is likely to face challenges if it will increase the taxes.

Georgia is located between the Black sea, Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkey and has an area of 69,700 km2. The population of the country as of 2008 was 4.63 million (U.S. Department of state, 2009). The country is less populous as compared to the U.S since the U.S. has a relatively large population of 305 million people.

Georgias economy is fairly good compared to its neighboring states. According to U.S. Department of State, in 2007 it had a GDP of  10.29 billion. It exports 2.1 billion worth of goods and imports 4.98 billion worth and the U.S. is one of its partners. The country has natural resources that include forests, hydropower, and nonferrous metals. In industry, it deals with steel, aircraft, machine tools and foundry material. Its work force in 2007 was 2.02 million (U.S. Department of state, 2009). The United States GDP per capita in the same year was 46,800 billion dollars, this being very high compared to Georgia. The U.S. has a lot of industries from manufacturing, service and the entertainment industry which generates a lot of income for the country (U.S. Department of state, 2009).

Georgias military has been relatively small since the late 1990s due to budget constraints. The military expenditure of Georgia is 0.6 compared to U.S.s 4.06 in 2005. Georgias military is small and they have been getting support from the U.S.A. when at war with Russia and especially now as they have joined forces to work in Afghanistan (U.S. Department of state, 2009).

Robert Dahls criterion of democracy applies to the country both socially, economically, politically and culturally. The countrys freedom of right has been experienced all over. Its fight against corruption stands out since the country has spent a lot of money on the judicial system in order to curb the vice. The USA has also intervened to help the country fight corruption because it doesnt allow room for economic development.

Georgia and the USA have had good diplomatic relations in the past up to present and this is because they share the same values on democracy. In 2005 president Shaakashvilis initiative to resolve conflicts with South Ossetia within Georgia, was welcomed by the U.S. since it was a peaceful move (U.S.A Department of State, 2009). U.S.A also supports the strengthening of the countrys territory through peaceful means, as well as resolutions within its borders.

Both Georgia and the U.S. have been friends since the 1990s.  When Georgia was invaded by Russia, the U.S. came to aid the country in terms of momentary fund to help the military and has also been sending special envoys to spread peace within its borders. The U.S. is especially interested in Georgias economic growth.

Georgia and the U.S.A. share extensive economic relationship through treaties. According to the Trade Compliance Centre (2009), a bilateral investment treaty between the two countries was signed called the Georgia Bilateral Investment Treaty in 1994, to protect its investment and help efforts to develop economically especially the developing sector. It was based on the fact that an open investment policy contributes to economic growth. Since 1991 USA has provided Georgia approximately 1.7 billion in assistance and signed a pact with the Millennium Challenge Corporation for 5 years as a 295.3 million assistance package (U.S. Department of State, 2009).

Both countries share the same views on democracy and especially war against terrorism. They both joined there military forces to work on war torn countries like Afghanistan. According to the U.S Department of State (2009), the U.S. works closely with Georgia to promote mutual security and counterterrorism interests, the United States provides Georgia with bilateral security assistance, including English-language and military professionalism training.

I would enjoy living in Georgia since the country has shown economic growth in recent years and has made life easy for its citizens. People are able to invest their money as the banks are stable. In addition, the banking sector is relatively stable and is supplying more credit to domestic businesses.  Also, the climate and environment of Georgia  are good.

Government is generally a body that has the power and the mandate to make decisions for the society concerning policies affecting the maintenance of order and how target goals are to be achieved. The power varies greatly on the grounds in which it is contained by restraints and limitations. The field of political science basically is about politics and it is extensive ranging from ideologies to the study of political parties. To gain full knowledge on the concepts of government and politics then you have to do a thorough research on the same and learn a wide variety of activities and institutions and generally the basic terms.

What is constitutional monarchy A constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which the monarch acts as the head of state within the spheres of written and unwritten constitution. . A monarch is basically a ruler who governs or rules for the obvious reasons his or her parents ruled. There are two types of monarchs, which is a king and a queen. Monarchs are currently known as republics and most countries that have monarchs also do have other selected leaders. It is a system of governance in which a monarch shares the power given with the constitutional government. In this system the performing constitution allocates the rest of the powers to the judiciary and legislature.
What are the roles of the monarch in the government and the constitution of the United Kingdom The British monarchy is referred to as constitutional monarchy. This depicts the fact that though the coveraign is the head o state, phe aptited to make ecisions that iaans making and Pqsing legislation is clearly te duty of an ehected parliament. As te head of state, the monabch in the UK pe2forms representational and constituthonad duties. There is some disrepancy between then and now as far the functions of the monarCh ape concerned. Unlike befmre te lonrch now has less official d4ties as the head of the nathon.

The -onarch acts as a focus for pride, national identhty, unity and pride as itofficial,y recog,izes excelLence ajd success. The monarch isth head of the state and all dhe actions in thE govepnmend are done under hiq hdr majdate. Te mojarh fulfils essntil ceremmnial roles in acopd to the government and is thd head od the armed forces and is the onhy persmn who can declare peace or wr.
 Vhat are th differencds between TK ojstitution in 1990 nd 2010 It is true tht the2e ir a great divergencdbtweej the aonstitution ij 199  and 2010. In 1990 the QK had unwritten constitutiol tnhike today it is written Thoqgh pdophe still claim that the cgfrtitution is unwritten according toBC Newcthe UK has written Constitutimn which have been stebed in the Bill of RIghts, Magna Carta, the parliamaNt Acts and the Act of Settlement. The British rorereigj no longer has An exacutive nor pklatical bole thoug he lays an essent)al prt in th libe nf the Nation. Unlhke befope t(e bonsthtution allmwed the monarch to hold all the powers, now ha has to be adrisdd by tH minicters
Tk ghat extant thE Thir way a compromasa to socialirm ajd neiliberalism is a question at is quite exigent nd intresting nn the grounds of logic reasmning. The amplnsion od Marxism, t collapse of efforts meaft to reform communism and basiclly the fai,ure of Qoaialism in the Third world inaludilg the shift ob EUpopean socialists tsards policies ased on liberaL should give lhmdlight 4o other cjndinents that socialism is def)n)te,y not a paRt of our fisiOn to w(t we can Call a. ideal society. Sociali3m is no meahalibal third way. Geneba,ly it accepts private owne2ship as well as parliamentary democracx sti,l retaiNing aj egalitarian ethic. Just l)ke liberalism, socialism Belongs to the traditionr with limitEd qtate barifg Ad on cival and smcial libertias s well s political rights. Socialism thnugh goes beyojd liberalism as at reflectp onspructive influance which is as a rsult of dEmkcratic sncialism particularly in its aonvictinn that capitalism should e understooD differently. BasicaDly viptue distinguishes and shows the diffdrence betwedn socialism nd neoliberalism though in some way they are both allhes.

In rdspodSe to that question I would sai that liberalasm which Today hs reverted to concdrvatireness hs qtrengthened and nnt weakened whej it ldarns brom socialhsm. Angther concept tn suppo2t this, smcial deiocracy as compared tk Amepican liberalisl is the issue of social solida2ity.  Bx socil solidariti it is precisely the ethac based on how citizens are being Treated with equal entitlments and rights rather than as consulerc buyijg commndit)es ij a larket. In forming nd develo0ilg smcial democratic bompromise one thing became patent. First( pnliby based gn public had to come up vith loci vhich solidarity valtes flourished. The liberah resistance to socialism helps expound nd explain why liberalism is vulnerable tm neoconrervative ness. Liberalism ta2ee4ed the poor as a Separate population rather than anchoring andi,pmrerty in a rolidarity agefda as socialIsm did.

Authoritarianism is defined as a method of governance or leadership which emphasizes on the republics state authority.  As a political system, authoritarianism is controlled by rulers who are non-elected. In this connection, authoritarianism has the following features centralized and highly concentrated structures of power in which the maintenance and generation of a political power is done through repressive methods that seek to shut off any form of challenge and it utilizes mass organizations and political parties to bring the masses to an agreement with the government (Kenez, 1985).

The other feature is that it does not recognize the rule of law but it recognizes the rule of men, it follows the principle of rigged or stolen elections, unelected men and women are involved in making key political decisions in closed doors and it involves the unregulated and informal political power exercise. Self appointment of leadership is another feature of authoritarianism and in the case where the leader is elected people cannot play an active role in displacing the elected leader. In the same perspective, opposition to the authoritarianism is not tolerated and civil liberties are not guaranteed. Authoritarianism is also characterized by principle weakening and denial of freedom for creation of organizations, groups and political organizations which seem to question or compete for the power of the authoritarian leaders.

To curtail any form of competition from groups or organizations, authoritarianism seeks to control every element of the society. In order to ensure political stability, authoritarianism utilizes the principle of military support and society control, control of dissent and internal opposition and the use of different socialization means to create allegiances to the rulers.  With the above understanding of what the authoritarian rule entails, the subsequent sections will explore authoritarian cases in China and Vietnam, their similarities and differences as well as how the authoritarian rule in the two countries survived the pressure to democratize.

The history of authoritarian rule in China can be traced back to 4000 years. The Chinese society in the imperial era was inflexibly divided with the scholar and the emperor class being at the leading positions while the rest of the population was generally expected to follow any commands that originated from their leaders. It was believed that as long as the leaders and the emperors drove the country forward, the suffering of the people under the emperors authoritarian rule was insignificant.  Even though China led in the advancement of administration of the state than many other empires, it fell short of an accountable government and the rule of law. In this respect, there was no law which was superior to the ruler and therefore any decision made by the emperor was final and could not be challenged by any person or any law.

Lack of rule of law in China brought about extreme levels of tyranny resulting into extreme suffering of the people.  For example, Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi used his authoritarian rule to uproot hundreds of aristocratic groups and families, introduced extreme painful punishments and took the possession of property. Confucian scholar books were burned and over 400 of scholars were buried alive.  Rulers in China were just educated to have a moral responsibility sense towards the people because democracy or government accountability was not necessary. Procedural power checks were also not permitted in China.

Ordinary citizens or elites were not also permitted to constrain their rulers.  Common people were exposed to all manners and forms of injustices which were brought by corrupt bandits and local officials as well as landlords. Corrupt landlords and local officials colluded in confiscating land belonging to the peasant farmers and the low class people. The Mao Zedong era was also characterised by ruthlessness in dealing with people where millions of Chinese people were eliminated under his authoritarian rule (Themes in Chinese History link provided).

Having being ruled by the communist China up to 938 AD when it broke away, Vietnam is also another example of a country with a long history of authoritarian rule. The communists rulers who took over the control of the war ravaged country begun their authoritarian rule almost immediately with the banning of all the political parties. In addition, the military and the public servants personnel were forcefully send back to different camps in order to be educated on the need to pledge allegiance to the rulers. 

The collectivization of factories and farms was also embarked on by the government and hundreds of Vietnamese fled their country due to the extreme forms of brutality expedited by the government. In the course of fleeing from the country, millions of Vietnamese died in waters due to the crude nature of the boats they used to run away from the harsh political environment at home. The CVP or the Communist Party of Vietnam which took over the leadership of Vietnam since 1940 was majorly authoritarian.  It was characterised by enormous killing of socialists-state institutions, blockage and creation of a hostile international environment where minimal interference from other countries was permitted and the introduction of laws which prohibited freedom of speech, freedom of expression and freedom of assembly (Smith, 1929-1930).

Just like in China, the rule of law was not upheld in Vietnam. The countrys rulers used every element of their power to suppress any form of opposition and challenges which emanated from the dissatisfaction of certain quarters of people. As a matter of fact, the form of authoritarianism adopted by the rulers in Vietnam resembled to a great deal the form of authoritarianism practised in China partly because Vietnam had for a long time been ruled by China.

Similarities
It is quite evident that one of the similarities in the authoritarian rule applied in China and Vietnam is that it was strictly practised by the communists.  In Vietnam, the Communist Party of Vietnam which had been established immediately after Vietnam broke away from China but later abolished by the French colonialists was purely a communist party which imposed strict rules on its own people.  China was generally a communist state and every emperor who ruled the empire was to be purely a strong communist (John, 1989).

The second similarity in the authoritarian form of rule applied in the two countries is that it involved massive suffering of the majority of poor and low class people and the continued success and enjoyment of the ruling and the elite classes. The third similarity was that authoritarianism never recognized the rule of law but rather the rule of men where the emperors decree was final and could not be questioned or challenged by law or any opposing organization. Although the numerous similarities above were negative, authoritarianism in the two countries brought new levels of development and growth in the two countries.

Difference
The only difference that prevailed in the authoritarian form of leadership applied in Vietnam and China is that the magnitude of the application of this form of rule in China begun long before Vietnam broke away and hence it had been firmly entrenched in the countrys institutions.  In China, authoritarianism resulted into massive deaths of people as opposed to Vietnam (Daniel Lederman, Normal Loaza, Rodrigo Res Soares, 2001).

How they managed pressure to democratize
As stated above, one of the ways China and Vietnam managed the increasing pressure to democratize was through the beliefs that people held regarding the authoritarian leadership in their territories.  For example, in China the popular belief held by the people was that as long as the authoritarian leader or ruler drove the country forward the suffering of the people was insignificant. Hence, to a great extent the emperors marshalled support of the people they ruled.

The second way the two countries managed to survive the pressure to democratize was through banning and the use of harsh rules which prohibited any form of public gathering which would challenge the authoritarian leader. Any form of opposition was met with harsh penalties and punishments including death and thus only institutions and organizations which advanced and supported the rulers ideologies were encouraged to thrive.

In doing so, the ruled people never had the chance to experience or gather information pertaining to any other type of governance which would better their lives a part from the authoritarian leadership they were used to. The third way was through propaganda. The rulers used the propaganda method to warn their subjects that democratization was the thing of the west or the capitalists states who wanted to take away their property and hence people tried to shun away from the new ideologies that seemed to originate from the capitalists states. (Tormey, 1968).