MID TERM EXAM

PART I
ESSAY I
Man since the classical age has evolved to become so sophisticated in terms of culture, social interaction and civilization in general. In The Geography of Nowhere (1993) Kunstler took on the blandness and monoculture of the American suburb in which he expounds on the ways in which American cities and towns make us bad. From the stone age to the iron age and now the information age profound changes have occurred in the way man live, travel, eat and even how he communicates. During the archaic age man never had to worry about how he lived and its effect upon the environment and himself. Given the technological development, today plans have to be put together to support the increase in the number of cars which seems almost at par with the human population growth. This makes urban designing of paramount importance as the increase in the population causes lots of problems such as diseases, pollution, crime and so forth which stem out of human activities.

Cities and towns today have to plan on how to use the land for building residential houses, factories and transport systems. This is because, with almost over six billion people on the planet today, the cities are becoming overwhelmed with excessive pollution and destruction of the ecosystems. The modern lifestyles as Wheeler (1997) argued contribute a lot to the increasing social inequality also destroys ecosystems due to climate changes which results from pollution. It is only right for planners to advocate sustainable cities.  In his book Home from nowhere Kuntler (1995) remarked that while suburbs are a profoundly uncivil living arrangement, our cities are increasingly remade as if to intentionally prevent the human interaction from which civil society grows. It is hard, he writes, to imagine a culture less concerned than ours with the things that make life worth living, like clean, tree-lined streets and self-contained neighborhoods.

However, sustainable development is a concept that is very young in many minds and still proves to be a challenge for many cities. Sustainable cities are very hard to build. Compact, effective and efficient land use, better accesses and less use of automobiles to keep pollution in check, efficient use of resources and waste removal, natural systems restoration, planned living environment and good housing, a healthy social ecology, a sustainable economy, the involvement of the community in preservation of culture and wisdom isnt at all easy(Wheeler 1998). Urban planners have always tried to implement widely accepted social programs and policies. This is because as Davreu (1978) stated that sustainability must be widely supported by the society in question prior to the start of the plan.
Developers today are using urbanist ideas to turn what we know as shopping malls into lifestyle centers.  As Blum put it, that they are modern shopping places which are designed to resemble city streets, restaurants with an outdoor atmosphere and spaces where people can rest. These centers also have a mix of uses which comprises of housing for tenants and offices (Blum 2005). Blum continued that the most discernible theme at lifestyle centers is urbanism itself.  Unlike in Kuntlers framework, the new urbanism provides a framework for communication and joint decision-making in a structured process characterized by feed-back loops and it facilitates a learning process of all the stakeholders involved.

Because urban design is about making a created vision a reality, then everyone is an expert at least in visualizing a quality place. As ways of counteracting sprawl, then a combination of a mixture of activities in less space is the way to go. Though Kunstler advocates the age social arrangements and the practice of building from the history and traditional meaning of building but the redirection of efforts, to create a kind of framework that contributes to the development and creation of quality places is inevitable.

It is clear that urban design, like any other design, as I have already stated should involve customers. These are people that live in the place in question and those likely to move in. This process aims at taking advantage of the consumer interests to foster cooperation, sharing of knowledge and planning and design processes. This is because the consumers have a better understanding of the issues that command local concerns and is a sure means to reduce possible antagonism from local communities to change. It is inevitable though when businesses are rapidly expanding as Davis said may bring about lack of common sense. Most urban developers dont involve the locals in the designing, thus ending up creating something which is completely for business purposes. Big buildings with even bigger places for cars are a common scenario in modern cities.

These developments in most cities have led to fractured communities and a loss of public spirit in communities across the America, according to Calthorpe. He writes, the American cities have lost their souls as the modern culture is taking root. He concerned himself with the segregation of people by age, income, ethnicity, as well as by family type due to the post- war development of the suburbs. Even the street, Calthorpe states, the most basic public space, is turned over for the accommodation of cars and the private world is more and more isolated within walled compounds.

It is very clear that a new aesthetic of place must be developed. A place that involves not just a change of design philosophy but also a host of other very practical considerations. As I have said before, from social effects and economic sustainability to environmental limits and political implications. It also means adopting a more unified and long-range approach as both Davis and Calthorpe advocate in order addressing the causes as well as symptoms. Such issues as open space preservation, congestion on highways, air quality, and affordable housing and infrastructure costs must be integrated and incorporated in the urban designing with the participation of every concerned party.

ESSAY 2
Intergovernmental relations have caused a lot of problems to the public not only in the history of America but in governments all over the world. Pelissero (2002) argued that the change of the general neighborhood pattern was characterized by an inevitable trend toward decline, frequently associated with the spread of districts occupied by more or less segregated ethnic and minority groups. Even though his study was only confined in New York but its impact was felt all over the country. In the late 50s the housing act authorized local governments to set up federally funded plans which would be for community renewal programs all over the city to determine the size of resources and renewal strategies allocation for different types of neighborhoods.

The shift in the federal policy from project specific and place-specific support can be seen as it was reflected in this community renewal program. Before this, the refusal of the Federal Housing Administration to finance the existing housing in neighborhoods resulted into urban riots of the 1960s (Myron, 1997). It seemed that a district will pass through a definite phases of development if it is not affected by other external forces which can ultimately change its use entirely. The gradual decline of the quality of people dwelling in the district over a period of time due to population expansion may result into intensive residential use of land which may cause the emergence of slums (Myron, 2002). Racial change in a neighborhood could result in very rapid decline of property values Babcock continues. Neighborhoods tend to decline in attractiveness over a substantial period of time, as the original residents are succeeded by others from lower economic levels. Transition, therefore, gradually results in poorer maintenance of properties and lower owner occupancy appeal. (FHA 1967, paragraph 71603.7).
 
This shows to what extent the intergovernmental relations have promulgated sprawl. The FHA in it Manual paragraph 920 acknowledged the exclusion of entire cities from some of the lenders lists of acceptable areas to fund. The more prioritized places were those with promising economic status. Consideration was given to the presence of tourism destination, political capital, trends of industrial employment or the educational center within a metropolitan area. This was subject to the method devised by the agency in order to analyze the economic base of cities and metropolitan regions that would supplement the risk ratings assigned to specific neighborhood locations. The Underwriting Manual concluded that single-industry areas are usually extremely hazardous, (FHA 1947, paragraph 1506(5)) and federal economic background ratings favored cities with a growing population and diversified economy.

Off course scholars and other concerned parties restated their concerns like in 1939 Homer Hoyt in his FHA study, The Structure and Growth of Residential Neighborhoods in American Cities, argued that the Northeast had the natural resources such as coal and iron and adequate transportation and also a good supply of water. Thus this was and ideal place to be prioritized, but unfortunately the outmigration of whites and low wage industries proved hazardous (Jacobs, 1961).

After the urban riots of the 1960s the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development used local planners to deliberately encourage the dispersal of low-income and African-American urban neighborhoods. This was followed by the eventual reuse of abandoned areas. The dialectical process of social change which may be understood as a post riot urban policy later became a method used to depopulate those areas which were considered to have social unrest (Porter, 1997). The growth patterns of metropolitan cities and their decline in the United States of America are a result of decisions on industrial locations, economic racism, and not to forget the suburban bias of federal highway and housing programs (Wiewel, Wim and Knapp, Gerrit-Jan 2005). The disparities between the growth and decline patterns of these metropolitan areas have been made wore by the neighborhood life-cycle theory, an evolving real estate appraisal concept used as a basis for decisions on urban planning.

Anthony Downs ( 1961) believed that if the trend of the flight to the suburbs by whites is to be checked, in the short-term, the only effective way would be to create a truly massive urban renewal program supported by the federal government. The program would have to be large enough to include neighborhoods of high-school-district size that will be reconstructed and replaced by newly-constructed developments occupied by middle-class residents who would initially establish high standards and maintain them henceforth.

The federal government and the local government have for ages contributed to the induction of sprawl patterns, urban disinvestment and the fractured metropolis. This is because of the influence of big corporations due to economic status of the area and the political capital. America has seen a lot of these effects in so many of its states and more so given the fact that racism was also a contributing factor.

PART II
Without a doubt for decades now Americas cities have been in decline. Despite the explosion of new government- spending programs designed to save these cities. However there are still some of the advocates think that the solution still lies with the regional governance (Jelier, Richard and Sands, Gary 2009). That means cities should annex their thriving suburbswith or without their consentor consolidates with their counties, thus creating cities without suburbs. He, ( Rusk) sees the cities declining being transformed to booming cities by imposing on the suburbanites to pay their for the costs of urban decline in his words their share.

There are some cities that have seen improvement through successfully annexing their suburbs or consolidated with their counties, but the political and legal obstacles are usually very prohibitive. Here Rusk suggests alternative ways to minimize economic segregation which includes a trace of racism which he thinks is the main problem in America. This view is also shared by Myron Orfield who also vests a solution on a plan that would put public housing projects in the suburbs. The argument that Rusk puts forward is that this plan would integrate the middle and lower classes into society, providing them with exposure and positive role models therein.

However, annexation is very much objectionable just as subsidizing housing in the neighborhoods. Thus the provision of incentives seems to be the solution to get the suburbs to cooperate. But this approach is very costly and more or less it is just another spending program. To make matters worse, this expensive proposal have support in high places (Jalier et.al 2009). While Rusk defends the uninvolvement of the federal government he still advocates the implementation of these types of programs through either the provision of federal dollars or new requirements on federal grants in aid. I agree with him that larger government may not be as efficient and as responsive as a service deliverer as smaller government. Studies have proved that large centralized government has higher unit costs of public services provision than a small decentralized one.

Rusk argues that his motivation in creating cities without suburbs is primarily the elimination of segregation in terms of race and economy. In the case of Orfield he argues that the regional planning, and fiscal equity which results from the distaste for waste of money, land, and human potential and the goal of less complex and more efficient government is the integrated solution to metropolitan problems (pg xviii).

Ignoring that centralization leads to inefficiency and higher costs, and that taxes have consequences, Rusks solution to the urban crisis is ultimately just an elaborately constructed house of cards meaning it has fatal flaws. He has failed to even consider that there is a possibility that many businesses and residents, faced with higher taxes after being annexed by their central city, and many would simply choose to move farther and farther away from the inner city to avoid those tax hikes as well.

Squires (2002) calls this intervention of the government to revitalize the declining inner cities as urban renewal. This included the transfer of subsidies to local agencies for slum clearance, housing construction and economic development. In his case the term urban renewal is the vehicle for improving the lives of the inner city dwellers. But just as in the case of Rusk when the spending spree by the government increases the taxes increase as that is where the government obtain the sources of funds. This in turn will hurt the very people that are supposed to be helped.

This is so because the tax base per house hold will increase by greater than regional averages making it harder and harder for the lower and middle classes (Kantor, Judd and Judd, Dennis, 2010). I do agree completely that regional reforms are of paramount importance, but what is missing here is the involvement of the people themselves. I have seen in many cases that when there is a situation, the government takes action to counter check but without involving from the grassroots the concerned parties. This is one of the major weaknesses. As most of us have seen or noticed that in most countries people dont trust the government.

The government is always seen as corrupt and insensitive to the needs of the people, especially the lower and middle classes. And taxes are the major factors, thus I recommend that the policies made to promote well being, combat sprawl, protect the countryside, and support urban vitality need to involve the target groups. The success in any approach that is used by the government is likely to face challenges if it will increase the taxes.

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