Political Science

Debates of failed state have been there since the end of the Cold war. Nevertheless, the September 11, 2001 attacks increased the momentum of these discourse. The United states felt threatened by failing states such Afghanistan and Somalia which they considered potential terrorist havens which could be used to recruit, train and arm terrorists. Failure by U.S. and other leading states to combat flourishing terrorism has raised the academic and foreign policy interest in conceptualizing the concept of failed state. In addition, impacts of failed states in terrorism and international crimes on global scale have also called for a clear understanding of these states (Kaldor 1999  Rotberg 2003).

A Sovereign nation has the duty to provide and meet security and basic needs of its entire population and ensuring smooth coexistence with the international communities. States that cannot provide such minimal basic requirement are described as failed, failing, fragile or weak states. The desire to understand the forces behind political violence, civil war, and terrorism believed to be facilitated by failed state has ignited the interest in state breakdown. Concepts such as crisis states, states at risk of instability and countries under stress (Moore 1966) show the level in which the core problem of failed state has been perceived (Menkhaus 2004). This discussion paper will be looking at the description, of failed or failing states, causes of the failures and the challenges they pose on a global scale and solution to such challenges.

Understanding State failure
While there exist no single accepted universal definition of failed or failing state, a common assertion is evident in the literature that defines failed or failing states as state that are characterized by reduced state capabilities to govern its territory effectively. This state inability in its extreme form, leads to total collapse of state power and function. Some of the characteristics of failed state include non recognition of state legitimacy by a large portion of its population, lack of provision of domestic security, and inadequate or lack of provision of basic needs for the citizens such as health care, food, sanitation, and education among others. Other characteristic of failed or failing state include declining economy, high level state corruption, informal economic sectors, and reduced trading with developed nations (World Bank 2006).Another aspect of failed or failing states is presence of large areas within their borders that are not governed. Most often, these areas are beyond the control of the central government and security and social services are provided by warlords. Such areas are globally a big threat since they provide appropriate environment for terrorist groups to carry their recruitment, training and fund raising activities.

State concept is central in understanding the aspect of failed or failing state. This is because the failure or success of a state is determined by the idea of statehood. State being the centre of decision making leaves the description of a failed state as one which has been paralyzed and not operating, laws are not developed, order is not kept and cohesion within the society is not enhanced. As a sovereign territory, security is no longer assured by a central organization and the state has lost its legitimacy as powerful political institution (Knight 1992). According to the theory of social evolution, state formation and collapse does not necessary mean an end to social institution but rather it leads to emergence of new institution. Depending on ones understanding of state collapse and the political changes that leads to the collapse then it is agreeable that state collapse is part of the processes of state reconfiguration and formation (Moore 2001).   Four elements of state function have been used to give a description of failed or failing state. These functions include peace and stability, effective governance, territorial control and porous borders, and economic stability.

In terms of effective governance, failed or failing state are dominated by poor governance, corruption, and insufficient provision of basic public services to all its citizens. This may happen due to factors such as leaders having limited interest or political will to provide central state functions as evident in Zimbabwe or North Korea. Such unwillingness by the state can cause destabilization elements within a state (Sen 1981). On the other hand, failing and failed state may lack effective control of their territory, military, or law enforcement more inherently along its borders. This can provide an opportunity where instability can increase. In addition, this ungoverned area develops into safe haven for terrorist growth and expansion, for instance the Pakistan-Afghanistan border and the Sahel region of Northern Africa. Economic stability is another element that characterizes failed or failing state. Due to consequences arising from security and political deficiencies, many failed and failing state lack the conditions necessary to have a lasting economic development. This then places the failed state among the poorest countries in the world, for example the Sub-Saharan Africa (Sen 1981).

One of the major causes that attribute to state failure is the resource curse effect. The abundance of natural resources and particularly oil has raised the incidences of conflict and has been the determinant factor of the duration and intensity of the conflict (Olson 2000). The recent poor economic performance of mineral-rich countries and frequent civil war has led to such states being viewed as failed state (Moore 2001). International interest especially for resources in developing nation is also believed to be a triggering factor of conflict in such state.  Lastly but not the least state failure is caused by the elite within the state when they promote their own interests through resource accumulation and power maintenance (Moore 1966, 2001  Nafziger 2002).

Challenges Associated with State Failure
There has been a growing concern in the recent years over the threats that are emanating from failed state. The 911 attacks awakened the global society to view failed state as state that posed unparalleled danger and especially to the developed nation. They were seen as pathway that could facilitate the movement of terrorist and proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) (Nafziger 2002). Apart from the provision of breeding ground for terrorist and proliferation of WMD, analysts have identified other challenges that are related to failed or failing state. These other challenges include spread of infectious diseases, environmental degradation, and energy security.

Failed or failing state has been regarded as the primary bases of operation for terrorist groups. Organizations such as Al Qaeda, Hamas, and Hezbollah were believed to carry their operation in failed states such Afghanistan (Kaldor 1999).  Such organizations are perceived to benefit from the lawlessness of failed state by participating in illegal economic activities to raise finances of supporting their operation and be able to access weapons and other equipment easily. A failed state also provides a favourable setting for recruiting and training new members and this is especially when the state is not able to control its part of territory such as porous borders. State in conflict also gives an opportunity to terrorist to get on-the-ground paramilitary experience (Reno 1998). It is worth to note that not all failing or failed states are safe grounds for international terrorists and that terrorist have been exploiting safe grounds in states that are stable.

Another challenge posed by failed states is the challenge of international crime. Similar to terrorist organization, international crime organization also benefit from safe ground provided by failing state. Lack of law enforcement and high level of corruption among the leaders of a failing state, illegal contraband and money laundering among other illegal activities are easily carried out in such states. There is also high likelihood of linkages between terrorist and international crime. For example, the Al Qaeda and Hezbollah have had linkages with criminal actors with rebel groups in West Africa diamond trade (Kaldor 1999). However, failed states are not always the appropriate place for international crime. This is due to other factors such as modern telecommunication systems, infrastructure, and transportation that could be unavailable in the failed state. In addition, some types of international crime such as counterfeiting and money laundering are more prevalent in developed nations unlike illegal arm smuggling which is common in failed state.

Persistence corruption and weak border control among failed state has facilitated proliferation of weapons of nuclear, chemical, and radiological nature. According to International Atomic Energy Agency, 1,080 nuclear and radiological materials were trafficked through porous borders in 1993-2006 (IAEA 2006). The origin of these materials was believed to be Central Asia where stockpiles of such material were not well monitored. New area of concern is Africa where recoverable uranium resources are available. Uranium mines are located in remote areas which makes it hard to supervise and this combined with lax laws and weak states enables trafficking of radioactive materials in Africa (Reno 1998).

Regional instability is another global challenge that is perpetuated by failed state. According to recent findings, state does not become failed in isolation. Instability goes beyond a failed state territorial borders and this is mostly through the large number of refugee, increased arms smuggling, and regional trade failure. For example, instability in Somalia has had great impact on stability of the Horn of Africa Region. (Menkhaus 2004)

Apart from the potential international security concerns posed by failing or failed state, a unique challenge is presented in the form of development. According to the UN Millennium Development goals (MDG), some failed or failing state to not qualify for assistance program because such programs in light of the MDG requirements are inappropriate for such states. This MGD requirement excludes such state from benefiting under such programs. Another challenge is that some failed states are not able to take in large some of foreign donations. These challenges make the failed state to remain in a fragile position for a longer period than anticipated (World Bank, 2006). Poverty which is one of the factors that contribute political instability then remains unresolved for a long period and thus increasing the risks of international security.

Recovery of Failed States
In most failed state if not all, population efforts are usually geared towards survival rather than engaging in recovery endeavours. Also common in such states is the humanitarian assistance which to a large extent only offers a survival remedy rather than durable recovery. Other factors such as ant-poverty, development, and security help though helpful, they are not considered adequate to break the cycle trapping the population (Sen 1981). Leading states such United State and international organization such as United Nations my also not be in a position to rescue failed states due to their fragmented efforts.

To address these challenges, we must acknowledge that an intersection between security, economic and politics must be met in order to break the cycle and that the goals of addressing the challenges must be based on changing the status of the population from victims to agents of recovery (Smith 2004). This then means a higher degree of integration in the recovery strategies than what has been carried out by international community in the past (USAID, 2005).  To enable the citizens of a failed state to recover calls for dismantling of instruments of violence, removal of violence incentives, and providing security for economic recovery (World Bank 2006).

Dismantling instruments of violence involves working with ex-combatants. This is a pool of people who can either facilitate violence or become agents of recovery. This depends on whether they are integrated in the recovery processes. The first step to integrate ex-combatants is through literacy followed by job training and placement. Except where serious crimes are committed, legal, social, and political rehabilitation provides a more promising recovery than retribution. Reformation of security control agencies is also vital and effective towards recovery failure to which the state remains fragile and subject to abuse. As attention is given to this institution in organizing, training and equipping military and police force (White House 2003), similar efforts should be directed towards institution reforms. Development of an efficient, fair and transparent justice system is absolutely essential to legitimacy, law, and order and eventually to security itself (Knight 1992).

In most cases, failed states are divided along ethnictribal lines or clans and when violence stop and these divisions are still evident, there is likelihood of the state to re-enter the failure cycle again (World Bank 2006). Removing incentives that can lead to re-eruption of such failure such as equal distribution of aid is effective in ensuring future stability of failed states. According to the fault lines of the society, development planning that offers opportunities to local initiatives can assist in the healing of differences through functional and economic domains. For a government to be considered legitimate, it must enhance inclusion of the entire population. Provincial and local politics provides an opportunity for such inclusion and it reduces the chances of violence and insurgent from victims of politics of exclusion (Moore 1966  Menkhaus 2004).

Creating security for economic recovery is another indispensable strategy towards recovery of failed state. Key natural resources have been one of the major causes of state failure and security for such resources will eventually mean stability of the state.  Transport routes, ports, industry hubs, and market places should be given high priority for local and international security forces for they are the targets of insurgents, warlords, and other spoilers (Sen 1981). In addition, sufficient funds must be allocated in the security sector failure to which it can lead to corruption, dissent, and abuse by the officers, the very person meant to keep law, order, and security (Moore 2001). Such measures can reduce conflict over economic resources and strengthen state authority and revenue providing physical conditions appropriate for human resource growth.

Failed state characteristic of violence, economic collapse, and political instability are anathema to foreign investment (Nafziger 2002  Moore 2001). Apart from providing physical safety, recovering states and global supporters should promote hospitable environment for foreign investors for example through giving investors incentives, contract and property law, and security from appropriation. Due to global market competitiveness, investors will expect the government to be effective and of integrity in ensuring easy materials entry and exit of goods without threat and interference (Nafziger 2002).

Conclusion
Cycles of violence, economic breakdown, and poor government in failed or failing state must be addressed aggressively and concurrently as they are the critical challenges. In most cases, these challenges are neglected during recovery processes and this is because they do not fit within the traditional security, development, and governance realms. For instance, integrating the ex-combatants calls for disarmament and demobilization by security agencies and preparation for non-violent livelihoods by economic agencies (Nafziger 2002). This in most case has failed to yield the expected results. The reason why such strategy fails is as a result of lack of awareness among security and development practitioner than of institutional and funding barriers. This then calls for unprecedented cooperation among the stakeholders of recovery both national and multilateral and also determination of the leading states in the recovery process. Ensuring provision of basic needs of the entire population and long-term development depends on the capabilities and reliability of the central government. International donors and other actors should ensure that these capacities are built along with accountability efficiency and effectiveness as part of recovery initiatives.