PUBLIC SECURITY AND TERRORISM
The meaning of the word terrorism is considered to have originated from the violent behavior that was witnessed during the French revolution of between 1789-1799. From 1793 to 1794 in France, terrorism by the regime de la terreur and was used by the state to consolidate power. Maximilien Roberspiere, a French revolutionary leader considered terror to be a way of promoting justice and order in the society. As a result, those who opposed the regime were executed. Apart from the political meaning of the term terrorism, the meaning of the word was also related to religion matters. For instance, the execution of people who were considered to be apostate by the Zealots and the Sicari was a form of terrorism meant to make people collaborate with the groups. These two groups were Jewish and on the first century, the Sicari used a short dagger to execute those who betrayed them. The other group, Zealots, killed the Greeks and the Romans in broad daylight and in front of witnesses with the aim of warning the Jews and the Roman authorities. This act of inducing pain and devastation to achieve a particular objective through subsequent generations is considered to be used by terrorists and it gives meaning to the term terrorism (Bruce, p.23). In the eleventh century, a Shia Muslim sect known as Ismailis assassinated individuals by stabbing them. The victims of the assassinations were often clerics and politicians who failed to adopt the purified version of Islam. The killing of victims was done during holy days and at religious sites in order to incite others and publicize their cause. The meaning of the term terrorism originated from political and religious objectives of political regimes and religious groups respectively.
Terrorism is difficult to define today. The meaning of the term terrorism has been evolving due to the difference in purpose and motive for terrorists to participate in terror acts. Because terrorism is characterized by physical violence, distinguishing it from other criminal activities has become a challenge. Over the past two hundred years, the meaning of the term terrorism changed so much. Initially, terror acts were carried out by religious groups and as time elapsed, political leaders and movements began using physical violence to achieve political objectives. Currently, the term has been given different definitions (Brigitte, p.16). For example, the US State Department provides different definitions for the terms terrorism, domestic terrorism and international terrorism. The United Nations conventions on the other hand have failed to adopt a universal definition of terrorism.However it criminalizes certain actions and threats as terrorism. Various countries and agencies define terrorism in a manner that suits their interests and budgets. Currently, the term is used to mean violence and revolutionary movements against certain leaders or governments. Terrorism is also seen to be surrogate warfare of weaker states against powerful states because there is no risk of retribution. To differentiate terrorism from other criminal acts, terrorism can be defined as violent acts against individuals, members of a particular religious, ethnic group or governments by an organization with a defined chain of command with the aim of intimidating them to give in to the demands of terrorism.
Q 2.What were the main causes that led to the Islamic Revolution of 1979 in IranBriefly explain how Irans foreign policy changed under Khomeinis theocracy.Give one example where Iran has exercised state-sponsored terrorism since therevolution. Discuss in detail the resurgence of religious terrorism, both in theMiddle East and throughout the world since the Islamic Revolution.
The Islamic republic of Iran was once an empire but frequent invasions over the years have had the political leadership change throughout the centuries. The Islamic Revolution of 1979 in Iran led to the establishment of a theocracy under Ayatollah Khomeini leadership. The revolution was led by Ayatollah Khomeini. One major cause of the Islamic revolution was the desire of the people to counter the leadership of Shah Mohammand Reza Pahlavi.His political rule was considered to be Western because it encouraged the secularization of the Iranian population. In addition, Pahlavi emphasized on the need for Iranian politics to be secularized and modernized. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi had assumed into power in 1941 after his father abdicated and during his leadership received great support from the United Kingdom and the United States. Despite his 1963 program known as the White Revolution) to bring changes in various sectors of development, his rule became autocratic. His support for the Westernization of programs was not accepted by many people who responded by demonstrations in the 1970s. The situation was made worse by the imposition of martial law by Shah in 1978 to respond to the opposition. This turned Iran into a model police state, a situation that triggered the 1979 revolution. Another major cause of the revolution was the alienation of the clergy from governance matters by Reza Pahlavi. The Pahlavi dynasty which began in 1925 and ended in 1979 after the Islamic revolution supported secularization of politics hence became an ally of the Western Powers. Administrative reforms introduced were supported by Western nations such the US and UK. Due to the autocratic and authoritarian rule of Pahlavi, the role of clergy in leadership diminished. Opposition to the alienation of Islamic clergy in leadership did not go well with many people. Domestic turmoil and dissatisfaction of people with Pahlavis leadership led to political and religious opposition to his programs and rule. Together with the oppressive rule, many citizens were angry because socioeconomic changes that were experienced in the country only benefited a few ruing elite while the larger population acted as catalyst to the revolution. Furthermore, the people despised Irans domestic security and intelligence service referred to as SAVAR and was meant to torture and execute political prisoners and those who opposed Pahlavis leadership. The torture inflicted by the service contributed to the demonstrations that led to the revolution.
Irans foreign policy changed under Khomeini theocracy. Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran on February 1 1979 after going into exile. He led the 1979 Islamic revolution that had conservative clerical forces establish an Islamic theocracy in Iran. In this system of government, the ultimate political authority lies with a learned religious scholar and as Irans national religious leader, Ayatollah Khomeini consolidated Islam in leadership. Changes in foreign policy changes were promoted by social, political and economic class structural changes brought by changes in leadership. The foreign policy in Iran during Khomeini leadership embraced the belief in ultimate victory and promoted the use of the military to solve political problems. Religion became integrated in leadership and the policy was tailored to put into consideration Islamic ideals. Revitalization of Islamic traditions affected the way of life of the Iran people. The elimination of political parties and banning of the anti-government media was meant to minimize undermining of the government from within or by foreign influence. Radical decisions in foreign matters were made. The decisions were interpreted as terrorism by the west as terrorism. For instance, state-sponsored terrorism was supported by the foreign policy. For example, revolutionary students on November 4, 1979 invaded the US Embassy and held hostages who were released after the US agreed to meet Khomeini conditions. The Iran government sought to intimidate Kurdish rebels in Irans northeast region who began struggling for independence after the 1979 Islamic revolution. The radical Shia dominated theocracy has continued to scare the West and Sunni Arabs who were distressed by the 1979 revolution. The foreign policy promoted poor relations with its neighbours.For example, use of violence to solve political problems had Iran attempt to assassinate some senior Iraqi officials. This led to the war between Iran and Iraq in the 1980s.
Iran has been considered to exercise state sponsored terrorism after the 1979 Islamic revolution. A good example is the invasion of the US embassy by revolutionary students on November 4, 1979. The students were sponsored by the Iranian government and seized a group of American citizens and diplomats as hostages for about 444 days. The US President then, Jimmy Carter gave an order for an oil embargo to be imposed on Iran. About 52 hostages were released in 1981 when the US agreed to Ayatollah conditions. The conditions included that the US cancel damage claims against Iran, to stop interfering with Irans affairs, return assets that had been held by the imperial family, give an apology and release of 8 billion Iranian assets that had been frozen. The active involvement of Iran government in this case made the West consider the case as government sponsored terrorism.
The resurgence of religious terrorism in the Middle East and other parts of the world since Irans Islamic revolution has become a global security threat. The Islamic revolution has played a major role in the modern religious terrorism which has spread to Middle East leading to the formation of radical Islamic groups. Although many religious terrorist groups were related to Islam the number of religious terrorist groups had increased and expanded beyond the Islam religion by 1992(Burgess, np). Religion has become a major force behind the devastating caused by the rising terrorism acts because terrorism motivated by radical religious beliefs leads to intense acts of violence as compared to those perpetrated by secular terrorist organizations. Many international terror acts incidents have been committed by religious terrorists. For religious terrorists, the use of violence is a divine or sacred duty which responds to a certain theological demand. The terrorists are not prevented from carrying out terror acts by moral, practical or political barriers because terrorism gets a transcendental dimension. Because large scale violence is morally justified and necessary for religious terrorists, the resurgence of this form of terrorism has been difficult to contain. The recent effects of modernization and globalization in the society have undermined religious norms and traditional cultures (Christopher, p.22).This has led to the resurgence of religious motivations for terrorists to who target those who go against certain religious ideals. Islamic movements such as Taliban in Afghanistan aim at preserving Islamic purity while other groups such as Al Qaeda are known to launch attacks against non-Muslim states, the West and its allies. Islamic fundamentalism support Jihad which they consider to be holy war against the enemies of Allah and the rise of Islamic fundamentalism has led to insurgence of Islamic terrorist groups. In India, the followers of Guru Bhagwan Shri Rajneesh support religious terrorism where suicidal self-sacrifice is seen to be a supreme act of devotion.
Q3.Provide a brief history of the PLO. Discuss how the PLO transformed the natureof terrorism. According to Hoffmans five key objectives for a terroristsapplication of violence (Module 2), was the PLO successful in their mission Why or why not
The Palestine Liberation organization is considered to be one of the best known terrorist organizations on the globe. It has been linked to international terrorism. It was created in 1954 during a Palestinian congress meeting with the major aim of speaking out on behalf of the large number of Palestinians who were living in refugee camps in Lebanon. The organization denied the existence of the State of Israel Efforts to achieve Palestinian liberation led to the division of the organizations into factions such as the Popular Democratic Front for the liberation of Palestine, popular democratic front for the liberation of palatine and popular front for the liberation of Palestine. By 1967, the PLO was committed to the destruction of Israel. This became the focus of the organizations massive terrorist campaign. In 1974, the PLO integrated political elements in its objectives and this led to dissatisfaction among some follower. Later, the PLO transformed into a movement with legitimate claims. The involvement of the PLO in the hijacking of a cruise ship where a wheel chair bound passenger was shot damaged the reputation of the organization and in 1988, Arafat recognized the existence of the state of Israel and renounced the involvement of the organization in terrorism. This had the organizations engage into peace talks with Israel and on September 13, 1993, the Declaration of Principles between Palestine and Israel was signed. Since then, efforts to find peace have encouraged the two to be encouraged to participate in peace talks.
Based on Hoffmans five key objectives for a terrorist application of violence, the PLO has not been able to achieve its mission. According to Hoffman, terrorists use violence in order to get attention, recognition, acknowledgement, governance and authority. The Palestine Liberation Organization succeeded in getting acknowledgement, attention and recognition. It has received world wide attention since it was founded in 1964 due to its terror acts that have received global media coverage.Furthermore the organizations publicity about its objectives to destroy Israel has been a major issue of concern in the Middle East. The PLO has been acknowledged hence it has been engaged in peace talks with Israel.However, it was not successful in acquiring authority over the region because the State of Israel which it aimed to destroy still exists. The PLO also failed to achieve governance and consolidate complete control in the region by establishing a secular Palestinian state in the region. The organization aimed at damaging Israel but did not manage to weaken it. The failure of the PLO in its mission was its link to criminal activities and this made its objectives to be looked down upon. By providing illicit funds to terror groups the organization is seen to be supporters of radical Muslim organizations such as Al Qaeda, Hezbollah and Hamas. Terror and criminal acts supported by the PLO damaged its image. Israel as a state has had strong military forces to defend itself from destruction by the PLO.
Q4.Name three religious terrorist organizations originating from three separatecontinents. Describe their country of origin, political goals, key targets, andterrorist tactics they have employed. According to your readings, explain whyreligious terrorists are more dangerous than secular terrorists such as left wingor nationalistic terrorists
Religious terrorist organizations can be found in various parts of the world. In the Middle East (Asia), the Al Qaeda is a religious terrorist organization which has continued to admit its involvement in terror acts. It has embraced militancy and Islamic extremism in its goals. The Al Qaeda was formed in 1988 and Osama bin Laden has been its leader for a very long time. Its country of origin is Afghanistan. After it was established, the organization assisted in the recruitment, financing, training and transportation of thousands of members to Afghanistan during the Afghan resistance to the Soviet Union. Since then, the organization aims at establishing a pan-Islamic campaign across the globe. It supports the holy war or jihad which allows the members to carry out large scale killing of individuals who they consider to be the enemies of Islam. The Al Qaeda works together with other extremist groups to attack non-Islamic individuals or groups. The Western nations especially America and its allies has been the major target for the Al Qaeda. Non-Muslims and especially the West are criticized by the organization for immorality which is attributed to the modern and secular lifestyle of the people. Other targets include moderate Muslim governments. The organization sometimes uses surrogates such as the Egyptian Islamic Jihad to avoid detection. The Al Qaeda tactics include hijackings, suicide attacks, bombing and kidnapping. The group has shown its support for the use of nuclear, biological and chemical weapons against its targets. Islamic religious teachings that foster anti-Americanism has given rise to such organizations.
In Africa, the Al Shabaab terrorist organization of Somalia is a religious group which has both religious and political objectives (Al-Shabaab,np).It originates from Somalia and it has been said to have links with the Al Qaeda. It is responsible for the instability being experienced in Somalia. The Al Shabaab Mujahideen has its headquarter at Somalias capital city, Mogadishu.The group considers its actions to be a jihad against the enemies of Islam and its political objective is to have complete control of leadership in Somalia. It rejects the current transitional federal government of Somalia and therefore targets the Somali Transitional Federal government officials. The group also targets the African Union Mission to Somalia which aims at maintaining peace in the country and preventing the group from taking over the government. It declares war on western non-governmental organizations and the United Nations. Members of the group use bomb attacks and also shoot their targets.
From Europe, Christian religious terrorist groups exist. A good example is the Christian Identity group (Christian Identity, np).It originated from Britain and was formed in the early nineteenth century. It was developed from British Israelism which rejects the Christian teachings that Jews are the descendants of the twelve tribes of Israel. Instead, the group preaches the gospel that the British and other Europeans are the true descendants of Israel. It is accused of distorting Christian teachings in order to preach hatred against Afro-Americans and the Jews who are the targets. The group has in the past believed to participate in the Centennial Olympic Park during the1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. It is also said to support the slave trade and has dealt with the selling of Opium.
Religious terrorists are more dangerous than the secular terrorists .Terrorists use different strategies (Andrew and Barbara, p. 65).This is because they are engaged in terror acts that are more destructive than those carried out by secular terrorists. Religious terrorists consider violence to be a sacramental act or a divine duty that needs to be carried out effectively.Therefore, they are not hindered by the moral, political or practical constraints to carry out their actions as is the case for secular terrorists. Secular terrorists often do not carry out indiscriminate killings on a large scale because doing this jeopardizes their political objectives while religious terrorists seek large-scale violence to attain their goals. Because religious terrorists seek total war on their targets based on their religious convictions, they do not seek to please a group of people but themselves. Secular terrorists tend to appease members of the community that they claim to defend and avoid getting engaged in acts that go against the ethos of those they tend to defend. The restraints that result from the desire to please such members are absent in religious terrorism hence terror acts based on religious beliefs is more destructive. Religious terrorists use terms such as infidels, dogs and children of Satan to refer to their victims. This promotes violence by portraying the victims as unworthy of living. Religious terrorists alienate themselves from the system that they are trying to fight hence they seek changes in the existing order. On the other hand, secular terrorists demand for corrections in a system they consider being part of hence their actions are not as devastating as those of religious terrorits.The fact that terror acts are a sacramental act for religious terrorists instead of a strategy for achieving political goals makes them engage in destructive acts because there a no moral limits.
Conclusion
Terrorism has become a global security threat due to the devastation it causes and the loss of lives it causes. For many years, acts of terror have been used by groups or individuals to achieve certain goals. Secular terrorists and religious terrorists carry out terror acts to achieve different objectives. Although the Palestine Liberation organization claims to fight for the rights of the Palestinians, it is considered to be terrorist organization .Religious terrorism in the current world is evident in the Middle East where much Islamic extremism has been on the rise. One of the historical events that has been attributed to the rise of terrorism is Irans 1979 Islamic Revolution. Iran has been accused of being involved in state sponsored terrorism. Although the fight against terrorism has been intensified by the Western nations, the victory is yet to be achieved.
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